Healthy Learning Environment Essay

In my classroom I keep my children healthy by monitoring their health. One of my first priorities is to know which child has any food allergies. I believe that the children need to eat a variety of healthy food. Our center is associated with the USDA Food Program and for this reason we serve lots of fruits and vegetables. In order for the children to see that it’s ok to eat healthy food I sit at the table and model good eating habits. We teach the children to learn the food pyramid; it’s another way to promote good eating habits. I also do a daily health check to see any signs of illness. I also make sure that the classroom is clean before the children enter the room. I clean the tables using bleach solution a few times a day to keep it sanitized and germ free. In our center we keep the children safe by creating an environment that helps the children make good choices. Our activities are safe and developmentally appropriate for their age group (3-5 years old). On our lesson plan for this week and the following week we will be talking to the children about Pedestrian Safety. We go on community walks to show them when we should cross the street and how we must look both ways before crossing. Another way to talk and explain safety is by reading books. Children feel safe when they are allowed to play with toys that are not broken and that they have easy access too. During outdoor time teachers will make sure that the play ground is free of any sharp objects that can harm the children. Children feel safe when their environment is like being at home safe and nurturing. Children begin to enjoy their classroom by learning about things that surround them. This done by planning you lesson plan ahead of time. My Team creates a new learning environment each time that we come up with a new theme. We create new and exciting activities that will have children wondering and guessing what is coming next. One way to keep the children excited and interested is by setting up each area with books, puzzles and dress up clothes. As time goes by the children will adapt to a consistent  routine that will allow them to self regulate while exploring each center freely.

Environmental economics Essay

It is a familiar characteristic of city life; it is a type of large scale outdoor pollution. It consists of fog grossly contaminated by the product of the inefficient combustion of coal. Chemical reaction between pollutants derived from different sources primarily automobile exhaust and industrial emissions. For each city that exact causes of pollution may be different, depending on the geographical location, temperature, wind and weather factors, smog in its acute form occurs especially during the warm months of the year. Notable, air pollution disaster of this kind was recorded in December 1952 where London smog lasted in the acute stage for five days and overall for ten days. Casualties were among cattle and opera performance had to be stopped after the audience had no vision of the stage. More seriously though, it was estimated to have been directly responsible for an additional four thousand deaths. Specify the externalities/factors that have made this problem and the extent of the externalities involved, the impact and recent trends. In pure market economy resource allocation is the result of the decisions of consumers (households) and producers (firms) who seek to maximize the difference between benefit and incurred costs i. e. private benefit and private cost. But in the weakness of the market economy is that it may fail to take account of any additional benefit or cost which spill over from the original decisions. The cost or benefits additional to those which are the immediate concerns of the parties to a transaction are the spill-overs or externalities, they are not provided for directly in the market place. Due to activities of individuals or firms human based or naturally pollution occurs as a result of emitting too much of a substance to the environment so as to have harmful effects. Every time we breathe, we risk inhaling dangerous chemicals present in the atmosphere. These dangerous chemicals can be either in form of gases or particles and have diverse and numerous effects on human beings and the natural ecosystems. Because it is located in the atmosphere, air pollution is able to travel easily therefore making it a global problem and to a subject of cooperation and conflict. Emission of nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, lead, suspended particulates and organic compounds that can evaporate and enter the atmosphere. Air pollution caused naturally includes forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, evaporation of organic compounds and natural radio activity. This does not occur in abundance in particular locations. Most pollution is as a result of human activity. The biggest causes are the operation of fossil fuel: – burning power plants and automobiles that combust fuel. These few factors are responsible for up to 90% of all air pollution in the United States alone. Other cities like Japan, China, Mexico and San Paulo have some of the most deadly pollution emission levels in the world. The world we are in is driven by fossil fuels, cars and other forms of transportation i. e. tracks, trains, aeroplanes e. t. c. run primarily on gasoline derived from oil. We can therefore say that some of the pollution issues that we face currently are directly related to the energy choice we have. Cooking, heating, lighting, e. . c. for homes, work places, industries using oil, coal and natural gas making us prone to pollution. Solutions to this problem begin with the logic of cost. This is where issues of renewable energy alternatives are suggested but corresponding arguments of greater energy efficiency and reliance on renewable energy is also advocated for. Some notable air pollution disasters are for example: the most publicized issues of second hand smoking. The smokers not only harm themselves but also others close by when they breathe this smoke. Industrial emissions did contribute to respiratory symptoms for several individuals and sixty deaths in Meuse area of Belgium in December 1930. In Danara, Pennsylvania, October 1948, twenty people died as a result of smog. This is a recurring problem that has seen world population mortality rate go up, low life expectancy e. t. c, this is due to diseases present in modern society and were not present 100 years go. Define using examples how policies to reduce this problem could be measured. Benefit management Policies set out to restrict smoking are important in attaining a healthy environment and individual. Policies to regulate smoking are in effect in some locations, but personal exposure should be motivated and limited wherever possible. However a combination of scientist, legislators, business leaders and individuals is a prerequisite for adherence and advocacy with a view to achieving a better environment. In this case therefore second hand smokers are protected especially in public places, this has therefore resulted to a decline in lung cancer, respiratory cases which would have cost the government and the unsuspecting persons a lot of money for treatment. On realizing the catastrophic effect of pollution and the environmental and personal costs associated with it, monitoring the air and environment campaign lead to: (i) Education in schools and universities where students begin at a very young age learning about the effects of pollution. They are taught and trained on management and conservation which carries in handy in the proceeding years of their life. (ii) Scientific groups have also been formulated as a result of government policies. These aim to study the environment with a view of coming up with solutions of encroaching problems and finding lasting and workable solutions (iii) legislative bodes have also contributed enormously by writing down laws that control emission. In this case therefore persons found violating the set laws is liable for prosecution. This makes industries oblige to avoid pollution and consequently revert to better and safer methods of production. (iv) Policies have also enabled the setting up of regulatory agencies e. g. united nations, the atmosphere management program to carry out environmental projects. They are bale to monitor, advocate and control the environment. These and much more are examples on policy formulated for better management and monitoring of the environment. As a result therefore emission of waste to minimized, controlled and checked. Dumping, waste disposal and waste management is carried out in a better way and thus reducing pollution levels. We also see that health cases and deaths are minimized, the government and individuals end up spending less for treatment in pollution related illnesses. The scenarios and beauty of landscapes, plants, etc is also retained. Measuring the cost of reducing the problem In conducting environmental sound economic analysis, we are required to determine the environmental and natural resource impact of the project or policy in question. In this case therefore it is the smog effect. It should also handle biological and social effects. One needs to measure the impact to determine the cost of solving it and this relies on the experts such as engineers, ecologists, agronomists, etc. We also put into consideration valuing the physical impact and relationship. Environmental impact can result in a miserable change in environmental quality. Estimating cost is generally easier than estimating benefits but it is not easy. One major problem derived from the fact that benefit cost analysis is forward looking and thus requires an estimate of what a particular strategy will cost which is more difficult than tracking down what an existing strategy does cost. Another fundamental problem disposed by collecting cost information when the availability of the information is controlled by a firm having an interest in the outcome.

Hamel and Prahalad's Concept of Core Competence Essay

Hamel and Prahalad's Concept of Core Competence - Essay Example Formerly, the diversification of the corporation would simply direct its business units towards particular end product markets and order them to become leading outlets of the business, but with the ever changing market boundaries, the targets proved to be to elusive with their sustained ‘capture’ limited. Only a few companies have been able to adapt to the ever changing dynamics and thus have been able to capture the existing markets through their inventing of new markets, their quick entry into new emerging markets and, more dramatically, in their shift in patterns on the selection of customers in the already established markets. Therefore, the critical task that various corporate management face, is the creation of an organization that is capable of infusing their different products and services with efficient and effective functional ability or improving their profiles with the creation of product and services that their customers need but have not yet envisioned (Gra nt, 2005, 182). Such a task is difficult since it ultimately requires the radical restructuring the management of these companies. This in essence means that the top management of various corporations or companies must accept and assume their role and responsibility in the decline of their companies’ competitiveness. The theory and practice of the ‘Western’ type of management is blamed on the creation of a ‘dragging effect’ on the forward movement of companies. It is thus imperative that the principles of management be changed /reformed (Grant, 2005, 182). Core competency can be described as ‘a specific factor that, through the business’ point of view, is centrally responsible for the way the business and by extension its employees perform their duties. Through its utilization, it can fulfill the following aspects: - it cannot be imitated easily by business competitors, it can be used to put leverage on a wide range of products and marke ts and its core importance is that it must contribute to the benefits experienced by the consumers. Therefore, it can take a myriad of forms including customer services, technical/subject matter knowledge and effective and efficient management of the business. It may include product enhancement, good marketing skills, efficient Human Resource Management among others (Nitschke, 2011, 23). They enable better coordination of the diverse production skills through the integration of different technologies, good communication, good interpersonal skills and an involved and deeply committed work attitude. Consequently, a core competence is achieved through the application of a specific and unique set of skills and or production techniques that will, in the end, deliver the expected value to the customer. This in turn, enables the discovery and exploitation of newer varieties of markets. As illustrated by Professor Prahalad and Hamel, core competencies usually lead to the creation or the cor e products of a business and in themselves can add many more products for their end users. These core competencies are enhanced through continued improvements by the companies over a period of time. This build up of the core competencies

Globalization in Daily Life Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Globalization in Daily Life - Assignment Example Many scholars and economist have tried to explain the term globalization as per their own view and opinions. For example, Jos Berghman commented that â€Å"globalization refers to a growing global interconnectedness† (Berghman, 2005, p.6). The term, ‘interconnectedness’ itself explains the core essence of the globalization. The UK Department for International Development (DFID) has given a broad definition of globalization. DFID has identified that the â€Å"increased flows of goods, services, capital, people and information† are the major determinants of globalization which is â€Å"driven by technological advances and reductions in the cost of international transaction† (Zajda, 2005, p.294).  Therefore, primarily, international trade and technological advancements have facilitated the process of globalization and this has developed medium for exchanging ideas, views, tangible & intangible capital, factors of productions etc. This process has crea ted a better scope for the development of economic, social, cultural and international relation. In our every step of daily life, we can feel of the presence of this development encouraged by globalization.  For example, the product developed using Japanese technologies like Japanese cars is dominating in the global automobile sectors. On the other hand, Italian cuisine like ‘Pizza’ is one of the popular food items of the people living in American and Asian countries. Moreover, Chinese cost-effective production process has led to encouraging many manufacturers like Nike to expand their business in China, and many multinational corporations are trying to enter in emerging marketing like India, Taiwan, China etc. These examples are a proper reflection as an outcome of globalization. In order to facilitate the process of international trade, the trade agreement between and/or among different countries have played a very significant role as it helps to grow a country with significant amount of foreign direct investments (FDI) which creates industrialization causing growth in aggregate demand and supply, and an economy can achieve equilibrium growth. Recently, U.S. and Korea have entered into free trade agreement known as KORUS FTA, according to which the U.S. MNCs can have greater accesses in the Korean market, and Korean automobile manufacturer can enjoy a significantly reduced tariff in U.S. automobile market (U.S. International Trade Commission, 2011). The U.S. automobile sector is already crowded with a number of domestic and foreign automobile companies. However, as per this agreement, the Korean companies can have better access to the automobile market as they are able to offer cars at much-reduced cost increasing the competition. The competition is one of the healthy sign for economic development.

News Writing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

News Writing - Assignment Example US president Barack Obama officially declared a $3 billion contribution to a global fund to assist third developing states manage the implications of global warming. Addressing University students at Brisbane, Obama spelt out his promise to the UN Green Climate Fund. The president’s declaration comes amid preparation for the official beginning of the G20 Leader’s Conference (Koplowitz 1). â€Å"Today, I’m announcing that the United States will take another important step,† said Obama, â€Å"the United States will channel $3 billion to the Green Climate Fund to assist third world countries handle climate change† (1). Obama’s pledge referred to Queensland’s Great Barrier Reef, which the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC), cautioned could be at jeopardy if no step is taken to reduce carbon emissions. Echoing Obama’s sentiments, Athena Ballesteros, an executive member of the World Resource Institute, commended the U.S’s effort in curbing greenhouse emissions. â€Å"These promises take us a significant step closer to attaining an international climate settlement(Koplowitz 1),† said Ballesteros. In attendance was HelaCheikhrouhou, the head of the GCF. Mrs. Cheikhrouhou expressed optimism that the U.S and Japanese assurances and the subsequent G20 focus on climate change, would pave way for more important contributions by other states. â€Å"The U.S’s commitment will be a legacy of U.S President Barack Obama,† said Cheikhrouhou. Reading from the same script, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe pledged to follow Obama’s footsteps, assuring the GCF that his country’s contributions are on the way. â€Å"Concerning the Green Climate Fund, the moment all the appropriatecircumstances for receiving the contributions are met, we will deliberate on whether to contribute the fair share of the problem† (1), said Abe. For this major objective to be realized, the three nations developed a set

Love the importance of internal control in auditing Research Paper

Love the importance of internal control in auditing - Research Paper Example The auditor may obtain this level of assurance by performing audit procedures. The audit procedures to be performed are designed in the light of size and complexity of the entity. These are also affected by the auditor’s assessment of the risk of material misstatement and the auditor focuses on the areas where the risk of material misstatement may be present. The risk of material misstatement is the function of the inherent risk and the control risk. Inherent risk is defined as the susceptibility of financial statements and assertions therein to misstatements which are material in the context of the financial statements. On the other hand, control risk is defined as a risk that the financial statements and assertion therein may susceptible to a material misstatement which are not prevented, or remain undetected and uncorrected by the internal controls of the entity. To respond to the assessed control risks, the auditor performs test of controls. The understanding of the design ed suitability and functioning of the internal controls helps the auditor in responding to those risks. It also helps the auditor to obtain reasonable assurance that the entity is achieving the financial reporting objectives. Thus, to assess the risk of material misstatement at overall financial statements level and at assertion level, it is essential for the auditor to obtain an understanding of the internal controls of the entity. Internal control is defined as a process designed to provide the auditor, whether internal or external to the firm, with a reasonable assurance that the company is achieving its objectives. The internal controls are affected by management, those charged with governance and other personnel of the entity. (Koutoupis & Andreas, 2007, p. 23, 25, 27). The implementation and maintenance of effective internal controls is the responsibility of the management. It is also the responsibility of the management to ensure that the controls designed and implemented by the management are achieving the desired objectives. The management should also assess whether the controls over financial reporting are reliable and whether any frauds may be detected by the internal controls in operation. The management shall also assess whether the employees of the organization comply with laws and regulations relevant to the entity. This usefulness of internal controls makes it necessary for the entity to continuo usly and consciously evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness of internal controls. A good and effective management always assess the effectiveness of internal controls on a periodic basis. Such evaluations help to pinpoint any deficiencies occurred in the controls during the period. It also helps to improve the internal controls efficiency and effectiveness in the changing circumstances. The practice of self-assessment of controls has emerged in the past decade. (Dietz & Donna & Snyder & Herbert, 2011, p. 35-40). Through this tool, the management has taken the responsibility for evaluating and improving internal controls. This evaluation is also considered important while designing new or additional internal controls. However, the method of designing of new controls is more or less same with the evaluation of the entity’s existing controls. Firstly, the entity identifies the reporting

Early Childhood Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Early Childhood Education - Essay Example Treatment of children in a family or society dictates how the family or society will be perceived in terms of success or failure. Isenberg & Jalongo, (1997) illustrate that childhood is the stage in life that is characterized by agility, curiosity and creativity. It is during this period of time that one decides on what to or not to be in future life. This therefore, implies that, a lot of attention is needed to get rid of undesirable characters which might associate with the child and grow with him/her to the future. Based on my profession and what I have gathered when learning this profession, given the opportunity to execute my duties, I will ensure that the children under my care obtain the best practices. This will be possible through incorporation of best learning practices such as practical learning methods into this system of education as echoed by Mallory & New (1994). According to Grotewell and Burton (2008), it is worth noting that not all children are born physically and mentally healthy. Some are born with physical disabilities while others suffer from mental disorders. In case this happens, it is possible that a child might be healthy both physically and mentally but born out of families which are not capable of providing for their basic needs. This can range from shelter, food, and clothing to comfort that they might need at some point in their childhood. The main objective of the early childhood initiative was to help young children and their families to survive which ever times they might be living. This is achieved through provision of support and intervention for the children and infants with priorities given to those who are disabled. Anning, Cullen & Fleer, (2004) explain that undertaking a course on early childhood education will open up opportunities in areas such as educational administrators, coordinators and librarians. Those trained

Final Examination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Final Examination - Essay Example On this basis, the performance evaluation process will help in identifying the various roles of an employee, and the desired results/ outcomes of their duties within the organization. This process helps in communicating the desired outcome of their duties, and how the organization will measure their efficiency in meeting its objectives (Fried and James, 2002). This process is also important because it establishes the progress of an employee under consideration. On this basis, the periodic performance evaluation process makes it possible for the organization to provide continuous coaching, training and education to the employee under consideration. This will help in developing the various skills of the employees; as a result, the organization will have a highly talented and skillful individual to work for it (Fried and James, 2002). There are a variety of good rating criteria for performance appraisals. One of the best methods to rate employees is the use of the BARS, which stands for behavioral anchored rating scale. This method allows a manager or s supervisor to provide a description on the employee’s behavior in relation to their teamwork, delivery of results, leadership skills and communications. This type of rating, gives managers the ability to provide their own reasons as to why they rate a particular employee in the particular manner. On this basis, this type of rating has an effect in reducing errors that managers can create while rating their employees (Fried and James, 2002). This is because this type of rating defines the dimension of a job that an employee does. This type of rating also identifies the various areas that are needed for training and development. However, the only disadvantage with this method of rating is that it is time consuming to develop. In carrying out a performance review, a manager/ supervisor will need data. To collect data, a manager needs to involve the employees by asking them to submit a self-review of themselves. This gives employees a sense of control, and an opportunity to be heard by the management under consideration (Fried and James, 2002). A self review will give the employee an opportunity to remind the management of some of their important contributions. The manager will also collect data/ information from other stakeholders of the business organization. This includes customers who might be asked to review the performances of an employee under consideration. Other methods of data collection include observing the performance of the employee by the organization, for purposes of recording their strengths and weaknesses. There are four main types of rating errors. This includes (Fried and James, 2002); Halo effect Halo effect involves the influence of an individual’s character based on the overall impression of the individual under consideration. Personal bias This involves rating an individual based on whether the supervisor likes him or not. Contrast effect. Contrast effects in volve making a comparison between the employees work performance, as opposed to the established standard set by the organization. Distributional errors. This involves generalized ratings, such as good, below average, excellent, without basing the rating criteria on an accurate data or knowledge.

Finance - Hedging Strategies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Finance - Hedging Strategies - Assignment Example The essence of hedging strategies is to reduce business risks while deterring the creation of additional risks. Multinational firms encounter a multitude of risks, particularly as a result of their competitive exposures across the globe. General Motors has along experienced competitive exposure due to the Japanese yen. This exposure has a lot to do with the depreciating Japanese yen. However, the company is yet to establish clear guidelines to deal with the competitive risk caused by the yen’s continued depreciation. In essence, the company’s hedging strategies do not provide lucid hedging strategy guidelines. General Motor’s treasurer and finance vice-president Eric Feldstein had to establish robust hedging strategies to counter the risk posed by the depreciating Japanese yen. General Motors was incurring substantial losses as a result of market changes with regard to the US dollar and Japanese yen (Desai & Veblen, 2006). General Motors, therefore, sought to min imize currency risk to maximize its profitability. GM established a passive policy that involved hedging half of its commercial exposures on a regional basis. This means that GM’s hedging strategy involved a clear distinction between commercial and financial exposures. GM defined its commercial exposures as cash flows related to its ongoing business, for instance, payables and receivables and its financial exposures as dividends and debt repayments. The primary purpose of GM’s overall hedging strategy was related to its foreign exchange risk management policy. This hedging strategy aimed at reducing the volatility between cash flow and earnings by hedging cash flows i.e. transaction exposures only and disregard translation (balance sheet) exposures. In addition, GM’s strategy aimed at minimizing the cost, as well as management time devoted to the management of global foreign exchange. This policy was an outcome of an internal audit, which showed that resource in vestment in active foreign exchange management had not led to substantial operation of passive benchmarks. This led to policy changes, as well as the adoption of a passive approach in place of the active one. Lastly, GM’s hedging strategy aimed at aligning the company’s foreign exchange management with GM’s operation of its automotive business (Desai & Veblen, 2006). This move reflected the assumption that financial management needs to conform to the geographic, operational footprint of GM’s overlying business. Overall, GM’s hedging strategy has effectively reduced its foreign exchange risks, enabling the company to operate efficiently in the Japanese market. JP Morgan is a US-based financial company that rolled out its business in other regions of the world. While companies establish hedging strategies to protect them from risks, particularly future risks, wrong practices can cost massive losses to a company. One such company is JP Morgan, which u sed derivatives as its primary hedging strategy resulting in losses of up to $ 2 billion. JP Morgan adopted the use of risky derivatives rather than less risky bonds used by its competitors such as Bank of America, Citigroup Inc. and Wells Fargo & Co. (Griffin & Moore, 2012). The later financial companies do not trade in credit-default swaps with regard to their indexes. However, JP Morgan accumulated massive credit-default indexes, which resulted in, price moves within the financial industry. Unlike JP Morgan, other financial industry players use

Principles of Supervision Essay Example for Free

Principles of Supervision Essay As part of this course, you will be required to take field notes for the field portion of the class which I will grade at the end of the semester. These field notes should be taken as if you were a naturalist describing the biology/ecology of a newly-discovered environment. An example of what I expect: Date: October 22, 2011 Location: Fort DeSoto Time: 09:30 – 09:45 Conditions: Heavy rain and wind, occasional lightning, severe flooding due to extremely high tides Walking on the trail at the welcome center where the water was waist deep. At the southern red cedar tree I noticed a bull shark feeding on a brown pelican, at which time I turned around and went home. Species identified (for species you identify, sketches are often helpful, maybe even indicate whether or not you took a picture. I STRONGLY suggest you take notes on any diagnostic characters we talk about): Southern red cedar – 20 feet tall, with scaly, needle-like leaves, bluish berries, and brown, shredded bark Brown pelican – large, brown bird, with a long, broad beak and a white head Bull shark – 5 feet long, very deep-bodied (large girth), blunt nose Obviously I don’t anticipate that you will encounter a scene such as this, but similar detail is required. Notes should be taken both in class and during your out-of-class excursions. Include drawings of plants/animals, key identifying features, terms we discuss etc. These notes will be extremely beneficial when studying for your field exam as well as preparing your collections. NOTE: field notes do not need to be typed, but I must be able to clearly read your writing. Also, a simple list of species we encounter will not be sufficient. To receive full credit, at a minimum you must have a set of field notes for every field trip we take. Should you miss a field trip, it is your responsibility to make up the trip on your own.

The GAP: PESTEL, SWOT and Porters Five Analysis

The GAP: PESTEL, SWOT and Porters Five Analysis Elements of Analysis: The GAP Case PESTEL Analysis Utilizing the PESTEL (Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental Legal factors) model, the key drivers and areas of significant impact for the competitive advantage in the GAP case are (Johnson, Scholes Whittington 2005, pp. 65, 68): Political – This seems only to be a factor with regards to operational differences between geographic/geopolitical regions, i.e., the US vs. the UK, and social welfare policies that affect actual garment construction. Social – This is a major driver of success as â€Å"fashion† and â€Å"style† would likely fall under this auspice. Specifically, the ability of the firm to generate the perception that its products reflect the fleeting sense of a trend is central to being a leader in retail fashion. Technological – This is a significant factor as the lack of a fully function European e-commerce platform was an opportunity cost that can be measured in lost market share valued in the multi-million pound range. SWOT Analysis Strengths The Gap has existed marketing power and presence and has prime, established retail locations throughout the US and UK. Weaknesses The inability to establish e-commerce on the UK side has lost not only sales opportunities but likely tarnished the image of a company that wants to be seen a ‘hip and trendy’ in a digital age in which competitive parity is ‘bricks and clicks’. Opportunities Through existing resources and brand equity, the Gap has the opportunity to regain one of the top spots in the mind of the consumer for fashionable clothing. One of the chief means of doing so is to quickly replicate the success of the online presence of the US business in the UK. Threats Perhaps the biggest threat is that one of the smaller boutique venues will achieve sufficient success to legitimately chip away at the mindshare of the consumer that Gap currently has on a scale that will be very difficult to reclaim. Porter’s 5 Forces As with the PESTEL framework above, only the most salient factors are indicated (Porter 1980, p. 4): Potential Entrants –The rise of small-scale boutique firms allow profit-taking from firms that do not have the ‘overhead’ of a corporation such as The Gap. This allows for greater flexibility and speed in the delivery of fashion to market. The Threat of Substitute Goods – Similar to â€Å"potential entrants†, there are not only other products that perform the same function but, in times in which economics dictate allocation of scarce consumer resources amongst items that, to some extent, fall under the category of highly discretionary spending. Contrary to this, one might argue that ‘fashion will always be in style’ and thus in-demand, the attractiveness of the industry will attract more entrants. Eventually, a form of homeostasis will be achieved but only at the expense of the exit of some less profitable firms. Industry Rivalry – The combination of the above two factors creates what is arguably a hypercompetitive environment characterized by larger firms seeking to sustain competitive advantage through enduring presence while small, flexible and fast firms seek to take perhaps a temporal portion by capitalizing on that which is most trendy. The Four P’s (Price, Promotion, Place Product) The concept of the marketing mix or â€Å"the 4 P’s† gives tremendous strategic insight into how the firm goes to market with its portfolio of goods and services. Price – Pricey but not so much that they cannot be seen as â€Å"luxurious necessities† for those for whom being ‘cool’ or ‘sexy’ is a real or aspirant lifestyle. Promotion – Consistent with other aspects of the marketing mix, television advertisements feature hip and trendy music, often done by somewhat older (yet still cool) musicians with engaging music. These featuring dancing or at least, rhythmic maneuvers, in which one must assume the clothes worn are as much a part of the causative agent for such behavior as the apparent youthful attraction and attitude of the performance crew. Place – Sold only through Gap stores in mainstream retail locations such as shopping malls and through, at least in the US, Gap-branded online channels. Product – Positioned as perhaps something that could be labeled as [young] ‘sexy casual’, such an offering virtually defines its market as those who are young and view (or want to view) themselves as fashionable and trendy. Products include shirts, jeans, sweaters, accessories and more and all geared at generating such a â€Å"feel† or experience for the wearer. Overall Business Strategy In general, a firm can have one of two broad strategies: cost-leadership or differentiation. With regards to differentiation, a firm may choose to segment based upon the customer by focusing on a niche or specialty market or they may choose product differentiation as by innovation or similar pursuit (Porter 1980, p. 35). Using this general approach, the Gap clearly pursues a strategy of seeking competitive advantage by differentiating product offerings (what it does) to those for whom a sense of ‘urban/sub-urban-esque’ fashionable â€Å"personal style† is very relevant to their lifestyle (the target market) through a combination of exclusive retail locations and a corollary online venue (the where of it’s strategy). Corporate Social Responsibility The idea of corporate social responsibility is best expressed by the notion of, â€Å"†¦ the extent to which an organization exceeds the minimum obligations to stakeholders as specified through regulation and corporate governance† (Johnson, Scholes Whittington 2005, p. 191). With regards to the GAP case, such a perspective is evident when they actively seek to position themselves not simply as seeking to establish sustained competitive advantage but the advantages conferred to everyone through sustainable business. Specifically, through their alliance to support AIDS awareness and suffering, they achieve profits and good works. Antithetically, one critique would likely be to question not the outcome but the motive for doing so. The Resource-Based View The essence of the resource-based view of the view establishes the lens of the â€Å"VRIO framework†. That is, for a firm to achieve sustained competitive advantage, its resources must be valuable, rare, inimitable and organizational in nature (Barney 2007, p. 138). With this in mind, it seems to follow that the best sources of such are resources which are intangible rather than tangible. From this perspective, the ability of GAP to attract and retain designers who can consistently replicate and market what is or is about to become â€Å"fashionable† at competitive costs would meet such criteria. Strategic Recommendations The essence of the Gap to maintain/re-establish sustainable competitive advantage is to be able to be both â€Å"big† and â€Å"small† simultaneously. The competition seemingly enjoys the element of first-mover advantage with regards to their ability to operate under the radar only to appear with trendy products in the market that less insightful firms can then attempt to copy. Correspondingly, the ability of the boutique firm to mass-produce and distribute a successful product is far less than that of the Gap with it established manufacturers and well-oiled distribution channels. Thus, the Gap needs to adopt fast, flexible methods of getting fresh and accurate insights into production and into stores. In the classic business decision, the Gap has but two options: make or buy. That is, they can either allocate resources in the form of time, talent or treasure (aka, money) to acquire these abilities or they may choose to outsource these functions to other firms. Perhaps a hybridized solution is to form strategic alliances with such smaller firms that have these resources in abundance but lack the marketing and manufacturing power of the Gap. Such a solution would achieve the goal of the acquisition, even if temporary, that the Gap seems to lack as it seeks to create lasting sources of competitive advantage in the face of the hyper-competitive, mature yet dynamically fickle industry of upscale casual fashion apparel. Mature vs. Dynamic Firm The Gap competes in a arguably mature but changing and constanting renewing industry. A â€Å"mature† industry can be characterized by the following (Barney 2007, p. 94): Slowing growth in total industry demand. The development of experienced repeat customers. A slowdown in the increases in production capacity. A decrease in new product introductions. An increase in the level of international competition. An overall reduction in industry profitability. With these criteria, the retail fashion clothing industry is perhaps somewhat unique in that each year brings something of a second-chance to capture the market. Though the degree of competitiveness and production capacity indicate a mature industry, the new arrivals to the target customer segment in regards to age, affluence and attitudes provide a potentially rich new customer base. These factors lead to the classification of the industry as being â€Å"mature† but yet quite â€Å"dynamic† in the sense that technology and the preferred tastes of an ever-changing consumer segment create a need for the Gap to acquire marketing insights and speed and flexibility in production to bring such high-margin, high-risk products as fashion clothing to market. Key References Barney, J. (2007). Creating and Sustaining Competitive Advantage, 3rd edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice-Hall. Johnson, G., K. Scholes, and R. Whittington. (2005). Exploring Corporate Strategy, 7th edition. Harlow, England: Prentice-Hall. Porter, M. (1980). Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries Competitors. Boston, Massachusetts: The Free Press.

Activity-Based Costing ( ABC ) Essay -- Essays Papers

Activity-Based Costing ( ABC ) Summary The business environment in the 1990s is markedly different from that of the past when conventional cost accounting procedures were established. Activity-based costing (ABC), pioneered in the late 1980s, offered a new costing approach consistent with the changed environment. However, ABC did not diffuse rapidly into the business community. This article demonstrates why adopting ABC is important by documenting the potential of ABC in supporting contemporary managerial decision making. Introduction Everything happens faster in business today. Even new management tools (some say "fads") follow a meteoric path. For example, the ink on new articles describing activity-based costing (ABC) was hardly dry before consulting firms had integrated it into their slick brochures and presentations. All they needed was someone to use it. To illustrate, Romano identified only 110 installations by August 1990, nearly two years after the procedure was developed, with 77 percent of these in two major firms [13]. Perhaps this phase, in the process of introducing the new procedure, could be called "the period of wild over-promise." However, even by the mid-1990s, ABC has not spread widely throughout the industry and "even in large firms, widespread success of ABC is not obvious" [16]. According to Ness and Cucuzza, "thousands of companies have adopted or explored the feasibility of adopting ABC. However, (they) estimate that no more than ten percent of companies now use activity-based management in a significant number of their operations" [11]. A survey conducted by the Institute of Management Accountants' cost management group found that only 29 percent of companies used ABC instead of traditional systems, but this was an increase from 25 percent in the previous year [10]. Among reasons cited for low adoption were employee resistance and major organizational changes required with the use of ABC [11]. Some trace the source of slow adoption of ABC to technical as well as cultural issues [5]. Others feel that ABC would be more widespread in industry if it were marketed better by the cost accounting profession itself [1]. As the dust has settled, ABC has turned out to be less a revolutionary technique than a useful refinement to proven systems. The costs of products and services must be accurate, or management can be misled. Decisions... ...8. Lewis, R.J. "Activity-Based Costing for Marketing." Management Accounting, November 1991, pp. 33-38. 9. Lofgren, G.Q. "Quality System Registration: A Guide to Q90/ISO 9000 Series Registration." Quality Progress, May 1991, p. 37. 10. "More Companies Turn to ABC."Journal of Accountancy, July 1994, p. 14. 11. Ness, J.A. and T.G. Cucuzza. "Tapping the Full Potential of ABC." Harvard Business Review, July/August 1995, pp. 130-131. 12. Port, O. "Custom-Made, Direct from the Plant." Business Week, November 18, 1994, p. 158. 13. Romano, P.L. "Trends in Management Accounting." Management Accounting, August 1990, pp. 53-56. 14. Roth, A.V., C. Gaimon, and L. Krazewski. "Optimal Acquisition of FMS Technology Subject to Technological Process." Decision Sciences, Vol. 22, No. 2, Spring 1991, pp. 308-334. 15. Schonberger, R.J. and E.M. Knod Jr. Operations Management: Continuous Improvement. Richard D. Irwin, 1994, p. 44. 16. Selto, F.H. and D.W. Jasinski. "ABC and High Technology: A Story with a Moral." Management Accounting, March 1996, pp. 37-40. 17. Smith, R.B. "Competitiveness in the '90s." Management Accounting, September 1989, pp. 24-29.

MP3s Are Beneficial :: Music Technology Essays

MP3s Are Beneficial With the invention of the computer came the invention of the internet. That invention of the internet has changed our entire lives and will entire to continue to change our lives. The internet is not always entirely good, but with the availability of information and the newfound ease of communication most do not often think of the internet as troublesome. While some find certain aspects of the newest technology harmful, others appreciate the technology and use it to uncover new leaves. Early perhaps no one had the vision of how the internet would change the entertainment world to the point it has today. The form of email we have today wasn’t in the inventors minds nor anything such as live video broadcasts online. So people sitting in front of a computer downloading and sharing audio files from one another through a mediator was nowhere near the realm of the inventors either. For Shawn Fanning, a 18 year-old college drop-out the vision of sharing songs and other audio files was right down his alley. For days Fanning, whose friends nicknamed "Napster," went sleepless while scribbling a code for the file sharing program. Eventually the code for Napster was completed in mid-1999. Napster was to allow its users to share mp3 files amongst each other. Mp3’s are a compressed form of an audio file that take up much less space than other forms of audio files. A CD can hold up to 80 minutes of music most of the time, but in mp3 form it can hold up to 10 hours of music or sound, So with advantage of mp3’s the popularity of Napster grew amazingly fast and within a year "An average of 640,000 people were downloading songs" at any given time. But with the popularity came the glaring eye of the Recording Industry Association of American (RIAA). As college students all across America quickly discovered they can hear their favorite musicians or songs wi thin minutes and all it takes is a few clicks of a mouse. College campuses started to ban the use of Napster as the RIAA was quickly moving to put a strong hold on the file sharing program. The RIAA’s position was "The record labels, as musicians' representatives, have long had legal control of how songs are distributed--and the ability to make money from that distribution.

The Evolution of Engineering

It’s no secret that technology has not only changed life as we know it, but has also changed the face of most every career field known to man.   Nowhere is this evolution more evident than in the field of engineering.   In order to better review the impact that advancements in technology have had on the field of engineering, exploration of past versus present comparison is necessary.   Upon reviewing the variations between engineering of the past and engineering of present, the dramatic involvement of technology in the field becomes inherently evident.Over the course of the last two decades, the field of engineering has come into its own.   One major component of the ‘new and improved’ field of engineering is the utilization of modern technology.   In fact, engineering itself is considered a frontier of development in modern technology itself.   â€Å"Scientific discovery and advancement affect our lives in two different ways—through new polici es and regulations that provide broad national direction and through new products and processes that enhance our lives and communities. Technology and engineering translate scientific knowledge into action.† (USDA 2007)Engineering, in the 1980s, was a field wherein the predominant research and development process surrounded countless instances of trial and error.   Due in part to the fact that all experimentation and designed was based solely on human ability and human ideas, engineering was primarily considered a ‘thinking man’s’ career choice.   For example, in the early 1980s, when mechanical engineers designed motor vehicles, much of their design was dependant on tangible models and hand drawn blueprints.   Today, on the other hand, computer technology allows for the use of computerized 3D models and AutoCAD architecture.   This same fact holds true for not only the vehicle industry, but the building industry, property development, and many more .Upon close examination of the implications of technology on engineering, it is revealed that this phenomenon began far earlier than many believe.   In fact, students at Virginia Tech have been required to own a personal computer since the year 1984.   However, improvements in computer technology have dramatically improved engineering accuracy and performance, have increased efficiency, and have made it possible for a wider variant of individuals to enter the engineering field.   â€Å"In terms of the difficulty level of problems, the computer has helped tremendously. In the pre-computer era, we'd spend a couple of weeks on a serious problem. Now it can be done overnight. In terms of the actual mode of teaching, we present less hand-calculation procedures than in previous times. It's just not needed.† (EE/CPE VanLandingham 97)A variety of modern technologies have added to the dynamics of the engineering field.   However, it is arguable that computer advancements have affected the field more than any other.   Because much of engineering is design, the use of computers as a design tool is prevalent.   Thanks to the precision and speed offered by the use of certain computer programs during the engineering design process, problems that once seemed impossible are now considered trivial.   â€Å"Students can do design and some calculations that were real tough to do before.   â€Å"We use computers a lot in the lab to take data and analyze data off the equipment. Most research projects take data using computers, and our folks have to know how to write programs and microprocessor code.† (EE/CPE Claus 97)Experts also agree that the integration of computers into the field of engineering have made the job more ‘fun’.   Computers allow engineers to heighten levels of creativity in their work while allowing for less stress in problem solving.   In short, engineers can now focus more heartily on the creative aspects of their project because they spend less time in problem solving.Interestingly though, the speculation surrounding technological and computer advancements in the field of engineering is not all positive.   There are many people who believe that the overt use of computers in the field of engineering provides engineers with a crutch that allows for less thorough problem examination.   It is also argued that engineers become ‘lax’ in analysis because they trust computers to be accurate.   The problem with this fact is that computers are not infallible.   If one data set is entered incorrectly, the entire analysis will be incorrect.   Basically, computers should moreover be used to verify analysis as opposed to actually perform the analysis itself.Many engineering professors and argue that the overuse of computers will promote carelessness in the field.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"I see students relying too much on computers, computation programs and symbolic manipulators – which is leading them away from self-discipline.   â€Å"They are using tools and have no way to check them. They come up with an answer on the computer and don't know enough to challenge their answer. They are using tools and have no way to check them. They come up with an answer on the computer and don't know enough to challenge their answer. They figure if the computer came up with the answer, it's got to be right.† (EE/CPE Brown 97)There is also evidence the integration of computer technology in engineering will ‘kill’ programming in the field.   Because of the incredible technology and dynamic computer programs available to engineers as a whole, there is a decreased need for new programming.   Certain computer programs offer engineers ‘ready to use’ packages for problem solving, which eliminates the need for writing code in problem solving.   The question as to whether or not this is a ‘good thing’ is perhaps most prominent in engin eering education.   ‘†Technology as the magic bullet for education is being vastly oversold,† cautioned Professor Jim Armstrong. â€Å"We can use the computers for computation and communication, but we must maintain the interpersonal aspect of teaching,†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (EE/CPE 97)The integration of modern technology and the integration of computers in particular, into the field of engineering has changed the face of all engineering disciplines as we know it. It is largely agreed that these advancements have improved the field of engineering in ways never before thought possible.   However, it is pertinent to note that not every implementation or change is considered beneficial. While, for the most part, computers and technology have only improved engineer problem solving and efficiency, it is also argued that these integrations have given birth to the ‘lazy’ engineer.   In fact, there are those who believe that today’s engineer is already considered lax because they now have the computer to do the work for them.   â€Å"Engineers are lazy. Engineers don't like to work hard and like to come up with ways to make their lives easier† (iPaw 2009) This view creates a paradox for many, because the very definition of innovation is the search for ways to make life more simple.In summation, modern technology and computer advancement has made the field of engineering more exciting for those engaged.   It has also allowed for more a more variant professional base within the field.   However, perhaps the most notable change in the field that comes as a direct reflection of computer advancement is the increase in the speed and efficiency with which engineers solve an assortment of problems.   This increased efficiency allows for a more rapid development of a product or and outcome and also allows for a heightened opportunity to concentrate on creativity and design.   Basically, computers and modern technology make the field of engineering more fun.While it must be acknowledged that not all views surrounding computer advancement and engineering are possible, it is widely accepted that computers have drastically improved every discipline of engineering while also acting as a catalyst behind creative engineering and innovation.From a personal perspective, we have entered the dawn of a new engineering age.   The field of engineering is rapidly becoming as much an art as it is an analytical career field.   This advancement and innovation is solely credited to the integration of modern technology into the engineering disciplines.   In the last five years, computer technology has taken not only engineering, but every career to new and exciting levels.   From the farmer to the fighter pilot, computer technology has changed the dynamic of ‘work’ as we know it, and nowhere is this truth more evident than in the field of engineering.Works Citedâ€Å"Catspaw's Guide to the Inevitab ly Insane.† Catspaw's Guide to the Inevitably Insane. 29 Apr. 2009 .â€Å"Computers and Engineering: Instructional Boon or Crutch?.† Virginia Tech | Electrical and Computer Engineering. 29 Apr. 2009 .Govil, Rekha. Recent Advancements in Computer Science and Technology. new york: Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999.â€Å"Technology & Engineering.† Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES). 29 Apr. 2009 .Fundamental Concepts in Computer Science (Advances in Computer Science and Engineering: Texts). London: Imperial College Press, 2009.

Staff Training And Development Essay

Sustaining Effective Staff Training And Development Essay IntroductionWhat is training and development?Training and development is a concept in management which allow the organisational activity to be aimed directly at performance of individuals, groups and the organization (Landale, 1999). There are three main activities under the guise of training and development which are interlinked – training, education and development. It is not just the role of the employer to identify training and development needs, the employee also needs to be able to identify their role in the organization and how they can effectively develop themselves (Landale, 1999). Van der Bossche et al (2010) acknowledge that due to the rapid advancements in technology and knowledge require the individual to participate in personal and professional development. The development of talent within the organization is necessary for competitive advantage to exist, it is also necessary for the retention of employees. The organization needs to identify talent and to support the individuals through all their training needsStaff Training and Development is described asthe necessity to cover the essential skills used in the everyday work situation. Within the promotion of training and development, the individual needs to be focused on the goal of developing their skills, knowledge and understanding of how the organization exists within its environment (Jerling, 1996). If the manager can motivate the employee in their work and can encourage development then the employee will see it in a positive light and will work towards the goals.I I Background Having effective employees is instrumental to the success of any business organization. This is the case because of the high employee turnover rates and high unemployment rates evident in most countries. Since the 2008 recession in the U.S, other countries of the world have experienced the ripple effects as the world largest economy struggles to recover. The European nations have suffered under the current debt crisis that has shrunk economies in Europe. Other countries in African and Asia have also felt the impact, as their economies are most dependent on both the U.S and European markets for trade. The subject of having effective employees has therefore, gained relevance as employers look for ways to sustain their workers. In an effort to keep their most important asset, organizations are heavily involved in the training and development of employees (Hung &Wong 2007). Training and development has been a tool used by organizations to mitigate the risks of losing employee to other or ganizations. It has also been used to groom future leaders of the company, as well as assist organizations in saving time and money. This essay shall discuss two theories that discuss employer support and training, as well as the impacts of employee performance in relation to training and development of employees.III Development Humphry Hung and Yiu Wong have come up with two theories that discuss the relationship between the employer and the workers when it comes to training, continuing education and work study performance (Hung and Wong, 2007). The theories were introduced because of a case study of Hong Kong students who were in school and worked at the same time. The authors then came up with the theories to help explain the student or employee’s performance in relations to their employees and employer relationship (Hung and Wong, 2007). The first theory was the psychological contract theory while the second one was the expectancy dis-confirmation theory. The researchers realized the need for employees to have an education so that they are able to move up the ladder as far as the work force is concerned. The researchers used the employee and employer relations as the subject of research, and came up with a model to explain how training and development can be effectively used in the workplace (Hung &Wong2007).Psychological contract theoryAccording to the psychological theory, the employer and the employee have a set of beliefs, promises and obligations that go beyond the formal contract between the two. This psychological contract theory is attributed to the second wave of research in this subject, namely where the basis is a mutual loyalty between employees and organization (Hall and Moss, 1998). The elements of the third wave of research on the psychological contract, which measures the attitudes and perpceptions of employees towards organization are demonstrated below (Robinson, 1996). In other words, once an employer hires an employee, the employee has to abide by certain rules while the employer is obligated to behave professionally. This means that the employees expect to exchange their loyalty and productivity for wages and other forms of compensation (Kimberly 2009). This theory may be regarded to be limited in delivery of depth of investigation of relations between organization and employees (Robinson and Morrisson, 1995). This suggests that recent research has failed to acknowledge the fact that psychological contact theory is more multi-dimensional as opposed to what has been presented in the research (Trunley and Feldamn, 1999a). As a result, there were two kinds of contents presented, namely transactional and relational. Transactional content involves measurable economic exchanges between the two parties. For instance, an employee works 40 hours a week for a paycheck at the end of the week. Relational contents are based on trust and long-term relationships. In such a case, an employee can delegate a certain role to the employee based on trust (McConnell 2004). In the study, three principles can emerged. First, there is interaction at an individual level, mutual relationship between the two parties and finally tactical exchanges. Most people believe that the relationship between the employee and the employer is based on personal ties because the employer is an embodiment of the organization, and the experience of their interaction dictates the success of an organization (Hung &Hing 2007). On the other hand, some believe that there has to be a mutual relationship between the employer and the employee for organizations to succeed. The mutual obligation is based on the belief that the employer is obliged to the employee in return for a commitment. Finally, the tactical exchanges occur between the workers in which case, the employee insists on a mental connection between the two parties (Kimberly 2009). The significance of the psychological contract theory is that it attempts to explain the employee’s behavior in regards to how he is treated by the employer. In other words, the employee relationship to the employer is imperative to matters regarding how employees react when subjected to training by organizations. The development of the employee dictates the performance of the employee in the continuing work-study. The research found that students who had a good working relationship with their employer performed well in their training and education compared to those who had a bad relationship (Hung &Hing 2007). Another limitation is attributed to the assumption, that psychological contact theory fails to address the specifics of individual work behaviour (Robinson, 1996a). From methodological perspective, this theory was developed on the basis of employee’s self-appraisals. As a result, it failed to include the actual supervisor’s appraisals, which are perceived to be quite crucial in delivery of objective opinion on the subject of job performance (Keeney and Svyantek, 2000).Expectancy disconfirmation theoryThe expectancy disconfirmation theory is similar to that of consumer dissonance. Only that in this case, it deals with the employee, as opposed to the consumer. The theory was brought about from the comparison of a worker and a consumer when dealing with their products. An employee is believed to have positively disconfirmed their role in the organisation when their perceived performance exceeds their expected performance (Roughton&Mercurio 2002). The opposite is true and r eferred to as negative disconfirmation. Negative disconfirmation occurs when an employee believes that their expectations exceed their perceived The ability for the organisation to be able to sustain effective staff training and development in the workplace is a necessity in the global market. The purpose of this paper is to reflect on training and development in the workplace (Venkatesh and Goyal, 2010). Other considerations which must be taken into consideration when discussing this topic are in relation to the culture and structure of the organisation as well as the importance of communication and the impact of the leadership styles on the overall behaviour of the organisation (Venkatesh and Goyal, 2010). The global market has allowed the transfer of skills and knowledge through migration and the internationalisation of organisations. Training and development are important to how the organisation can compete in the market, if the organisation can sustain their employees through training and development they will be able to compete in the market. The effectiveness of employees will prove to be a valuable asset to the organisation and it is important that the organisation holds on to their employees (Klein, 1998). It has been argued that the resources of an organisation are the key sources of competitiveness. There is a need to examine the background of the organisation – culture and structure to see how these can determine how the organisation perceives training and development opportunities within the organisation. This theory has also proved to have some limitations attributed to it. This implies that it has been a subject to limitations imposed on the methodlogical approach. This implies that there have been some concerns reported in relation to the measurement of expectations that have been met (Irving and Meyer, 1999). This implies that direct measurement which is utilized in prediction of the disrepency between the expectations in relation to the job and actual behavioural intentions (Irving and Meyer, 1999).Strategic ManagementStrategic management is an essential process which needs to be considered in any organisation. Thompson & Martin (2005) explain the process as being concerned with organisational actions and activities which identify and deal with threats, opportunities etc in both the internal and external environment. How strategic management is managed shows how well the organisation can adapt to change and how training and development will be welcomed in the organisational conte xt. Lamb (1984) states that strategic management assesses competitors of the organisation and sets goals and strategies which can be seen in the context of training and development and how the organisation views the importance of its employees. One of the most important strategic processes is the practice of retaining employees. It is best practice to keep the skills and knowledge available to the organisation to remain competitive and to be able to recruit the most talented individuals in the market. If an organisation has the pick of the talent through their recruitment process they can sustain their competitive advantage which will allow them to compete consistently. The type of culture is reflected through the recruitment and selection processes as well the organisational structure and culture. If an organisation can effectively train and develop their workforce as well as retain their employees. Performance management and a competitive incentive programme can enhance the ability of the organisation to select and recruit the individuals they want to recruit to positions and not just because they have to fill the position (Phillips & Pulliam Phillips (2002). Lambin (2000) defines the strategic process as allowing management to identify advantages and disadvantages. It will be important to identify the advantages and disadvantages of training and development further on in this paper but it is extremely necessary that these are identified so that the organisation can identify the skills and knowledge which they require in their organisation. The human element to the resources of the organisation are extremely important, Armstrong (2006) cites that the skills and competencies identified within the human resources process need to meet the future demands and challenges of the organisation and the environment. It will be necessary for the organisation to meet the pressures from the competitive environment and it should be prepared for this. Most organisations would not be able to function effectively in their environment without sustaining effective training and development in their workplaces. It is important that employees can be motivated i nto performing and target meeting.Organisational CultureThe culture of the organisation is an integral factor of organisational activity. Holbeche (2006) believes that there are issues linking corporate social responsibility, accountability and the stakeholder environment. The culture of the organisation will impact on the behaviour of the employees in reference to how they behave, their work attitudes, the ability to embrace change and how the organisational objectives are achievable or not. Motivational theory is extremely important (Alderfer, 1969, Vroom, 1964, Maslow, 1943, Herzberg, 1966) link the goals of the organisation to the performance and achievement of personal goals which in turn can be fuelled by how skilled and knowledgeable the individual is. The culture of the organisation can be linked to success through the achievement of the competitive advantage. Deal & Kennedy (1982) believe that the most important factor for the success or failure of the organisation is the c ulture. Culture by its very nature is implicit of behaviours within the organisation. Leadership and management are also essential to the understanding of culture and how it affects all mechanisms within the organisation (Rabey, 2003). This is also essential to the concept of training and development within the organisation as the development of management within the organisation, as the leadership role needs to grow both personally and professionally thus the impetus is on the development through training and development. The leader plays a role in the development of the organisation and if this individual is in tune with the development and training of the human resources, the organisation will embrace this concept. Schein (2004) reflects that the leadership and culture are inseparable. Structure is also important to the training and development environment within an organisation. The more rigid the hierarchical structure the less likely the culture will embrace training and development p ractices. While many organisations realise the need for progressive training and development it should be noted that not every organisation is a learning organisation (Schein, 2004).LeadershipIt is necessary to understand leadership as a concept before attempting to evaluate training and development. The development of the leader, according to Pedlar et al (2003), is that the concept is based on unexamined assumptions. There is no single definition of a leader, however, there are many attributes attached to leadership such as an ability to adapt, to make decisions, to be flexible and to be able to recognise skills within themselves and within others. The ability of the strategic manager is to be able to create an environment where employees want to participate and make a significant contribution to their role in the organisation. It is through this communicative process that the leader can identify the development requirements of the employee. The employee should be able to trust t he judgement of the leader to allow them to participate in any programmes for development and learning within the organisation (Rabey, 2003). It is also necessary that the leader can identify any developmental needs in their own career progression. If the leader is forward thinking they will bring the organisation into line with the requirement of the selection and recruitment process to enhance the competitive nature of the organisation. The performance of the individual is impacted by the authority figure in the organisational relationship and can be highly influenced by the use of incentives. One such incentive which can be used to motivate the employee is that of training and development opportunities. These types of incentives are extremely important in today’s global environment with the internationalisation of organisations and the free movement of the workforce. The more skilled the workforce, the more ability the employee has to dictate their position within the organisation. This position allows the employee to hold some power over the authority figure as they can determine where they want to go in terms of their career and their development. Communication is key to this process so that the employee knows what kind of training is available to them and for the leader to be able to communicate the type of training which may best suit the employee. It is important that the leader can apply self development to themselves before they apply it to the individuals within their organisation and there should be an ethos throughout the organisation on lifelong learning .Learning OrganisationIn today’s global environment the concept of lifelong learning is extremely important and it is necessary for all employees to keep their development and learning up to date. The availability of learning to employees should be a pre-requisite to any organisation who profess to be a global leader. It is necessary for all employees to keep their skills, resources and knowledge updated so that they can compete in their business market. The markets while very dynamic and complex are also extremely competitive, and organisations are always looking for the right individual to take up a position within the organisation, who will ultimately enhance their competitive advantage (Lambin, 2000). Lifelong learning as a concept is not new, however, the concept of learning within the organisational context is very new. This allows the individual to learn around their own experiences. Both the organisation and the individual should be in synch with each other to allow their goals to be achieved. The service which the individual can apply to their customer greatly leaves a mark on the organisation as to how proficient it is in dealing with its customer. The ability of the organisation to provide professional training for their employees will successfully promote the organisation as well as the role of the employee. It is necessary that lifelong learning should be promoted more readily in today’s global markets due to the expansion of business and the free movement of employees to other countries. Lifelong learning can be provided throughout the organisation and does not necessary mean that it must be formal, it can be on the job training, but it should be used to encourage and motivate the individual. It is important to understand that the concept of lifelong learning is not without it disadvantages and within many organisations the facility is very much available. However, it is up to the individual to decide that they wish to partake in any programme, and also up to the manager to put the employee forward for training and development. This is very much about communication. Depending on how free flowing communication is, depends on the availability of these facilities. If the employee does not push for these opportunities they can hardly be expected to be handed the opportunity. However, the manager must communicate that these opportunities are available to the employee and explain the positive features for the employee. It is also necessary that the vision and politics of the organisation match the service and opportunities which can be given to employees. The need to preserve the abilities of employees within the organisation has become increasingly important, especially for the organisation to retain the skills, knowledge and resources which it currently holds. Lifelong learning can in effect change the labour market and the direction which the organisation is heading. Smith (2001) identifies the need of an organisation to be progressive, to allow the individual to gain more knowledge throughout their career and to persuade the individual to use the resources available to them for educational and growth purposes.Benefits of Training and DevelopmentTraining and development is a particularly helpful feature to the organisation as well as the individual. The process allows both the organisation and the individual to grow alongside with the global market. It allows the individual within the organisati on to recognise that they should be motivated to perform their job to the best of their ability because they can feel more valued by the incentives which they can receive from the organisation. There are many benefits to the organisation and the employee but it should also be recognised that there are also disadvantages to this. Lifelong learning does not necessary mean that the employee has to go off site on participate in in-house training, it also means a variety of opportunities within the organisation such as job rotation, secondment etc. These types of roles allow the employee to try out the role but also it means that they can avail of training in other positions within the organisation. This type of training can also motivate the employee as it can be seen as a performance reward for their hard work. It would seem in today’s environment, the emphasis would be very much on a culture of performance equals rewards. Other types of training and development include attending classes and online courses.Advantages and disadvantages of Training and DevelopmentThe advantages which can be beneficial to the organisation is the retention of the current employees who are competent in their positions and have the ability to take on new roles within the organisation. If the employee can be trained in other po sitions it will benefit the organisation when it comes to employees leaving, thus the need for an urgent replacement for the position is no longer made a priority as the organisation can often promote or second from within. This allows the organisation some time to proceed with the recruitment and selection process to allow for them to find the right candidate. This also allows the employee to try other positions within the organisation and to decide if they wish to apply for these positions. With these types of training and development opportunities, the employee gets an opportunity to experience other roles and they may also provide a monetary incentive such as a pay rise while they are in the position. The ability of the organisation to provide these types of roles will also allow the organisation to retain their workforce and the skills and knowledge which come with that. It also enhances the skills of the employee. While there are advantages to training and development, there are also disadvantages. These disadvantages are predominately to the organisation but those which are important factors to the employee are the amount of time they would have to spend on the training and they may not be fully aware of the training opportunities which are afforded to them. This could be due to a lack of communication within the organisation or that the organisation is not overly interested in the development of their employees. One major reason that an organisation may not provide training and development would be down to cost in time and money. It may not be convenient for the organisation to spent time and money on an employee when the end result could be that they lose the skills and knowledge of the employee to another organisation due to the training and development they received. This has become more common as employees are more empowered and acknowledge the freedom to move to another job, even to mov e to another country.How Training and Development is ChangingGarrison & Anderson (2003: p.i) state that ‘The growth of e-learning is being described as explosive, unprecedented, and above all, disruptive.’ E-learning is associated with providing a framework for understanding the application and to goal set. This method of learning has become increasingly adopted as technology is evolving and transforming work practices. Many organisations have acknowledged the need to change according to reviewing the values and culture of their organisations. It has become increasingly important for organisations to adapt to the new learning environment. Training and development has changed rapidly due to global expansion. The employee no longer needs to take time off work to participate in training. Along with on the job training, it has become cost effective for employees to educate themselves through online and DVD/ CD’s. Technology has afforded organisations and employees easier ways to participate in training and development. Study can take place at the workstation or at home rather than the traditional format where the employee had to leave the workplace and travel to a destination where they could be facilitated. This has become extremely cost effective for the organisation as they are not losing man hours when the employee is studying/ on their course and it also means that workloads are not high because the work is still being completed. Along with the rise in popularity of the Internet and its main feature, namely interactivity, the human resource managers have found out that this may be used to the advantage for training and development purposes (Venkatesh and Goyal, 2010). The internet, as an interactive and communication medium provides wider access to the information and enables distance learning for knowledge transfer purposes. This suggests that it is much easier to engage in learning programs from any location in the world, if an individual has an Internet connection (Venkatesh and Goyal, 2010). Additionally, it has been estimated that the Internet is associated with lower costs, imposed on the training and development strategies. This implies that the main costs are reduced in the areas of physical distribution of training and development programs and the need for hiring a specific staff in order to maintain those. Online training allow the individual to manage the training program by himself, where he is r egarded to be in control over the situation (Venkatesh and Goyal, 2010). Van Dam, (2002) suggests that online training is utilized in combination with the offline channel, suggesting that in the majority of cases, the users of the online training system tend to maintain an offline contact whilst receiving the necessary instructions. The online training system is mainly utilized for the development of computer skills, job-related skills and technical competencies. Recently, there has been an emergence of economic recession that has affected the planning and implementation process of training and development programs. This implies that economic recession has made the companies to reconsider their costs and thereby plan the cuts, where necessary. CIPD, (in EWCO, 2009) has estimated that the performance of the majority of companies in the previous 12 months has been worsened. With regard to training and development, it has been estimated that 32 % of surveyed companies have reported cuts in the training and development budget in the previous 12 months. However, in the light of recession, despite the imposed cuts in budget, the majority of companies has estimated that training and development has not been viewed as an expendable commodity. This implies that the management of the companies still view training and development programs as the key priority for company’s achievement of organizational objectives (CIPD in EWCO, 2009; Bourke, 2009) . This suggests that there is a great potential for further investments in training and development programs, given its significance in the corporate world.Methods used in Training and DevelopmentThis type of training also encourages the employee as they can do all their study with the use of a pc and can do it during working hours at their workstation. It also allows the employee to have more say in their development and to enhance their skills. The use of IT has allowed the development of more globalised skills which are transferrable. It is also appropriate for the organisation to provide the employee with the information about training and development opportunities which is extremely easy compared to how the traditional methods had been. The employee and the organisation can research the courses/ training and development opportunities. The manager has the ability to distinguish worthwhile courses/ training opportunities according to the need of the employee with the use of IT. T his is where the ability to communicate and identify the individual needs of the employee as well as their own needs. References 1.Alderfer, C.P. (1969): An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Needs, Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, Vol. 4, Issue 2, May, pps. 142-175 2.Armstrong, M., (2006): A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 10th Edition, Kogan Bourke A. (2010). ‘Recession Affects Training and Development Programs’. Available from: http://www.aicpcu.org/MediaCenter/docs/articles/Recession_Affects_Training_and_Development_for_Web_10-09.pdf. Last Accessed: 13th Feb. 2012 CIPD in EWCO (2009). ‘Impact of recession on workplace training’. Available from: http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2009/09/UK0909039I.htm. Last Accessed on 13th Dec. 2012 3.Deal, T.E., & Kennedy, A.A., (1982) :Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books 4.Garrison, D.R., & Anderson, T., (2003) :E-Learning in the 21st Century, RoutledgeFalmer, Taylor & Francis Group Hall, D. T., & Moss, J. E. (1998). ‘The new protean career contract: Helping organizations and employees adapt’.Organizational Dynamics, 26, 22–37. Herzberg, F. (1966) :Work and the Nature of Man, Staples Press Holbeche, L. (2006), Understanding Change: Theory, Implementation and Success, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann Hung, H. & Wong Y. (2007), ‘The relationship between employer endorsement of continuing education and training and work and study performance’: A Hong Kong case study’. International Journal of Training& Development, 11, 4, pp. 295-313. Irving, P. G., and Meyer, J. P. (1999). ‘On Using Residual Difference Scores in the Measurement of Congruence: The Case of Met Expectation Research. A Longitudinal Analysis’, Personnel Psychology, 52(1), pp. 85-95. Jerling K. (1996). Education, Training, and Development in Organisation. Pearson: South Africa Keeney, M. J., & Svyantek, D. J. (2000). ‘A review of psychological contract theory and research: Promise nothing and they still may get angry’. Current Trends in Management, 5, 65–94. Kimberly, W. 2009, Value Initiatives Improving Performance in the Workplace. NY:GRIN Verlag 9.Lamb, R., (1984) Competitive Strategic Management, Prentice Hall 10.Lambin, J.J., (2000) Market-Driven Management: Strategic & Operational Marketing, MacMillan Business Landale A. (1999). Gower handbook of training and development. 3rd ed., Gower Publishing: UK 11.Maslow, A.H. (1943), ‘A theory of human motivation’, Psychological Review, Vol. 50 No. 4, pp. 370 – 396. 12.McConnell, C. R. 2004, ‘Managing Employee Performance’, Health Care Manager, Vol. 23, No. 3, p. 273, Supplemental Index. 13.Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J., & Boydell, T., (2003) A Manager’s Guide to Leadership, McGraw-Hill Phillips, J.J., & Pulliam Phillips, P., (2002) Retaining Your Best Employees: In Action Case Study Series, American Society for Training and Development Rabey, G., (2003) The Paradox of Teamwork, Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 158 – 162 Robinson, S. L. (1996). ‘Trust and breach of the psychological contract’. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41:574–599. Robinson, S. L., &Morrison, E.W. (1995a). ‘Psychological contracts and OCB: The effect of unfulfilled obligations on civic virtue behavior’. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16: 289–298 Roughton, J. &Mercurio, J. 2002, Developing an effective safety culture: A Leadership Approach. NY: Butterworth-Heinemann 17.Schein, E.H. (2004): Organizational Culture and Leadership, Jossey-Bass 18.Thompson, J.L., & Martin, F., (2005) Strategic Management: Awareness and Change, 5th Edition, Thomson Learning 19.Smith, M. K., (2001) ‘Peter Senge and the learning organisation’, the encyclopaedia of informal education, available online at www.infed.org/thinkers/senge.htm Turnley, W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (1999a). ‘The impact of psychological contract violations on exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect’. Human Relations, 52, 895–922. Van den Bossche, P., Segers, M., & Jansen, N., (2010) Transfer of Training: The Role of Feedback in Supportive Social Networks, International Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 14, Iss. 2, pp. 81 – 94 van Dam, N. (2002). E-learning by design: Can a better-designed course help you learn moree-learning. 3(1), 38-39. Venkatesh, V. and Goyal, S.(2010). ‘Expectation Disconfirmation and Technology Adoption: Polynomial Modeling and Response Surface Analysis,’MIS Quarterly 34, (2), 281-303 Vroom, V.H. (1964), Work and Motivation, John Wiley

English the Most Amazing Subject

English Class 8 Task 1 Reading exercise Read the novel, ‘The Boy in The Striped Pyjamas’ by John Boyne; Chapters 1- 4 Focus on: †¢ What themes are explored in the first four chapters? †¢ The relationship between Bruno and Maria. Task 2 Speaking and Listening Prepare a 2 minute talk to your class about something that really irritates you. It does not necessarily require a very formal language. Follow the steps below: 1. Decide on a topic. It’s always best to talk about things you actually know about and to express feelings you really have. . Structure your talk. It may be brief, but it still requires: †¢ An opening in which you quickly grab the audience’s attention and let them know what you’re going to talk about. †¢ A main body in which you give a couple of reasons or ideas to support your point. †¢ A conclusion in which you leave the listeners with a memorable phrase. Task 3 Grammar Practice adverbs and adjectives using the following websites: †¢ http://www. schoolexpress. com/fws/cat. php? id=2287 †¢ http://sites. google. com/site/jostombaugh/adjectivesadverbs Task 4 Spelling Learn the spellings of the following words: 1. Autumn 2. Knowledge 3. Development 4. Embarrass 5. Definite 6. Audible 7. Concentration 8. Assessment 9. Accommodation 10. Diamond 11. Beginning 12. Height 13. Queue 14. Business 15. Beneath 16. Tomorrow 17. Jealous 18. Questionnaire 19. Issue 20. Atmosphere 21. Continuous 22. Marriage 23. Imaginary 24. Improvise 25. Miscellaneous 26. Happened 27. Process 28. February 29. Forty 30. Separate 31. Straight 32. Success 33. Reference 34. Technique 35. Conscience 36. Murmur 37. Diary 38. Design 39. Column 40. Weird 41. Listening 42. Montague 43. Mantua 44. Capulet 45. Shakespeare 46. Idolatry 47. Adversaries 48. Nuptial 49. Forfeit 50. Foreshadowing 51. Shroud 52. Apothecary 53. Tybalt 54. Abram 55. Balthasar 56. Rosaline 57. Cemetery 58. Epitaph 59. Exile 60. Enmity ———————– NOTE: †¢ Students will be assessed on the given tasks when they return to school. †¢ Any queries regarding these tasks should be addressed to: [email  protected] com

Administrative Reform in Bd

[pic] ASSIGNMENT ON ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM SUBMITTED TO SHAMIMA AKHTER [pic] (JKKNIU) SUBMITTED BY SAIFUDDIN AHAMMED MONNNA Dept. of Public Administration and Governance (JKKNIU) Roll no-11123144, Session-2010-2011 Course code PA-122 {1th Batch (1st year) 2nd Semester B. S. S. Honours} Submission date-01. 22. 2012 Table of Contents Serial no | Subject |Pages | |1 |ABSTRACT |2 | |2 |INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND |31 | |3 |Brief Review of Administrative Reforms in Bangladesh |6 | |4 |Major Issues of Administrative Reform in Bangladesh |8 | |5 |List of Major Committees and Commission for Administrative Reform |20 | |6 | 25 | | |DISCUSSION ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS ELABORATELY IN THE FOLLOWING | | |7 |CONCLUSION: |36 | |8 |REFERENCES |37 | ABSTRACT This assignment explores the interplay politics and administrative reform in Bangladesh by drawing some perspectives from other developing countries. It covers the period both before and after democratization of the country, hinging around the even ts of 1991, and thus provides the opportunity for comparisons. It has sought to draw out the relative importance of political will (including the intentions and authority) of governments, and to critically assess their capacity, the degree of co-operation they gained from civil service actors, and to assess the relevance and appropriateness of international donor interventions. INTRODUCTION All countries strive to reform their administrative system in response to the challenge posed by socioeconomic posed, political, and technical environment. Bangladesh is no exception. Since its emergence as a nation- state, Bangladesh has been trying hard to reshape its administrative system. However, despite their perceived importance, administrative reform in Bangladesh has encountered serious hurdles over the last thirty years. Since 1971 after a civil war 17 reforms have been taken from which some reforms are very crucial. The major administrative reforms and their fate are discussed elaborately in the following†¦ BACKGROUND: Bangladesh bears a colonial legacy in its entire public administration system. Presentday Bangladesh was part of the British Empire for almost two hundred years. In 1947 Pakistani rulers replaced the British and dominated the area then known as East Pakistan until a bitter war in 1971 brought about an independent Bangladesh. A colonial imprint persists in Bangladesh especially in political and administrative Arrangements . The British tradition helped the bureaucracy to become an essential tool of governance. At the same time, it is accused of following the â€Å"Pakistani tradition of involvement in power politics† (Hague, 1995). The political system of Bangladesh has survived a series of transitions. A few years of democracy were followed by nearly fifteen years of military rule. In 1990, for the first time, Bangladesh achieved a fully functioning democratic structure. Ironically, the nature and role of bureaucracy in both the pre and post-democratic period remained almost the same except for an increase in number of ministries, divisions, departments and statutory bodies (Ahmed, 2002: 323-26). The role of government has changed in the course of Bangladesh’s development. After independence its focus was the attainment of development in all spheres of life by intervention and the use of administration in a constructive way. Government and administration were seen not merely as a regulator but as a facilitator. However, it can be argued that development, when considered as a multi-dimensional concept, cannot be attained and sustained without good governance. The term â€Å"good governance† has Acquired tremendous importance in the contemporary world, especially in the context of the developing countries. For example, many developing countries have prepared . Essential component in implementing the plans and strategies to achieve the targets set forth by PRSP; but good governance is a component that most developing countries seriously lack. Merilee S. Grindle points out that when determining their priorities and taking steps to ensure good governance, most developing countries go too far: they chalk out a plan or strategy far beyond the limited capacity of the institutions charged with implementation responsibilities. Grindle suggests redefining â€Å"Good Governance† as â€Å"Good Enough Governance†, that is, â€Å"a condition of minimally acceptable government erformance and civil society engagement that does not significantly hinder economic and political development and that permits poverty reduction initiatives to go forward† (Grindle, 2004: 526). In Bangladesh, a second-generation development challenge is to achieve â€Å"good enough governance†. No matter how much a government tries, success will not be attained if it lacks competent institutions to implement policies. Public administration is the key institution for policy implementation. If it is not functioning well, then PRSP targets are unlikely to be met. The state has to make sure that its administrative apparatus is functioning well, so that it can innovate and implement solutions and that it can ensure that the poor will not be excluded from the process and benefits of development. From the beginning of the 1990s, the role of government has changed from an intervener to a referee; instead of playing the game, its main duty is to make sure that a fair game is being played. This reinvented role of the government necessitates redefining the role of the bureaucracy. Bureaucracy can be considered as an â€Å"open† system that interacts with or is affected by the environment in which it operates. Traditionally, this environment consisted of only the â€Å"domestic economic, political and social context within which the organization is located. † Now, however, â€Å"public organizations are more often faced with global threats and opportunities that affect their operations and perspectives† (Welch and Wong, 2001: 372-73). The performance of a public organization depends largely on how the domestic political institution handles global pressures as well as how it interacts with the bureaucracy. In a country like Bangladesh, where global pressure is eminent and the domestic political institutions are ill structured, the colonial legacy places the bureaucracy in a difficult position. As globalization or market liberalization changes both the domestic context and the functioning of the bureaucracy, it is possible—but not necessarily desirable—that the two primary state institutions, politics and bureaucracy, forge an alliance. All countries strive to reform their administrative system in response to the challenge posed by socioeconomic posed, political, and technical environment. Bangladesh is no exception. Since its emergence as a nation- state, Bangladesh has been trying hard to reshape its administrative system. However, despite their perceived importance, administrative reform in Bangladesh has encountered serious hurdles over the last thirty years. Since 1971 after a civil war 17 reforms have been taken from which some reforms are very crucial. The major administrative reforms and their fate are discussed elaborately in the following Brief Review of Administrative Reforms in Bangladesh: Since the emergence of the country, a number of commissions and committees (for details, please see Annex-A) were constituted by different governments for administrative reform and reorganization to suit the needs of their respective policy declarations. The development partners also prepared several reports toward that end. A review of the major efforts is summarized below. The first political government in Bangladesh felt it necessary to rationalize and transform the provincial administrative system it had inherited into a national system which would be able to shoulder the responsibilities of a new born sovereign nation. Accordingly, the government constituted a Committee known as the Administrative and Services Reorganization Committee. The committee reviewed the administrative system thoroughly and proposed a comprehensive structure to enable it to undertake increasing development responsibilities. The recommendations were not, however, implemented due to resistance from different quarters. The subsequent military government in 1976 constituted a commission called as the Pay and Services Commission for recommending measures for administrative reform. The recommendations of the Commission were partially implemented. The Commission recommended for the introduction of an open structure system in the secretariat administration and creation of 28 cadres in the civil service. While the cadre principle was implemented, there was, in essence, a failure to introduce open structure system in the secretarial administration. The martial law government of General Ershad appointed a Committee for examining the organizational set up of the ministries/divisions, departments, directorates and other organizations. The Committee recommended reduction of the number of ministries/divisions, and of staff at the lower levels of secretarial administration, reduction in the layers of the decision making and fixing the supervisory ratio, formalizing and regularizing recruitment processes, emphasizing the principle of merit in promotion, delegation of financial and administrative powers down the hierarchy and providing training for officials. But major recommendations of the Committee were not implemented (Khan, 1991). Later, the martial law government appointed another committee, known as Committee for Administrative Reforms/Reorganization (CARR). The Committee recommended for renaming of Thanas as Upazilas (sub-districts), upgrading the Sub-divisions into districts and installation of elected local governments at district, Upazilla and union levels for the transfer of development functions to these elected local bodies. This time, the government implemented most of the recommendations of the Committee. It upgraded Thanas into Upazilas and sub-divisions into districts. It introduced democratic governance though limited in scope at the Upazila level. In 1987, a Cabinet Sub-committee was formed to recommend policy measures for implementing recommendations of the Secretaries Special Committee on the Structural Organization of the Senior Services Pool (SSP) and the Secretarial Committee relating to the problem of unequal prospects of promotion of officers of different cadre services. The Committee recommended the abolition of the SSP and certain other measures to improve prospects of promotion of officers of various cadre services. The government accepted the recommendations of the Committee and abolished the SSP in 1989. In the same year, another committee was constituted to reexamine the administrative structure and the man power position. The Committee found that 7000 officers and employees were surplus in 37 departments and offices. On the basis of its findings, the Committee recommended the abolition of 27 departments (Khan, 1991; USAID, 1989; Ali, 1993). During the tenure of the last government, an empirical study was conducted and two committees were constituted to look into problems of public administration and recommend measures for reforms. The Public Administration Sector Study was sponsored by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) with a view to suggesting an open, transparent, accountable and performance oriented administrative system to support parliamentary democracy. The Four Secretaries Committee and Committee for Restructuring Ministries/Department were constituted by the government. The areas of investigation of these committees and study included secretarial administration and work procedures, ministry-department relationship, ministry-corporation relationship, project cycle, organization and structure of government, decision making, accountability, human resources development, financial management and corruption. Recommendations made by them were of multifarious nature corresponding to the nature of the problems. The present government constituted the Public Administration Reform Commission in 1997 with the mandate to recommend policies, programs and activities to improve the level of efficiency, effectiveness, accountability and transparency in public organizations and to enable them to fulfil the government’s commitment to ensure socio-economic development and reach out its benefits to the people. The Commission made three types of recommendations, interim, short term and long term for administrative reforms in areas such as, defining of mission and functions of the public offices; affirming professionalism in the civil service; performance monitoring and result oriented performance, audit of government agencies; delegation of powers to subordinate and field offices; open and free access to government documents and reports for the sake of transparency and accountability; separation of judiciary from the executive; separation of audit from accounts; simplification of outdated laws, rules, regulations and forms (GOB, 2000). The Government has implemented some of the interim recommendations of the commission. The cabinet in a recent meeting accepted in principle the other recommendations of the commission. Major Issues of Administrative Reform in Bangladesh: The importance and significance of various reform efforts can not be denied as these have addressed to a large number of is sues relating to public administration in Bangladesh. But it is believed that the following issues should be taken into consideration while attempting for any comprehensive eform effort in the future. 1Role of Government The role of government in terms of dimension and nature of involvement in various activities has direct bearing on any reform effort. With respect to size and functional involvement, the Government of Bangladesh has assumed an all pervasive character. The lack of private initiative, which is a historical phenomenon, as well as government’s compulsions, especially just after the emergence of the country, provided the basis for the extended role and functions of the government. As a result, the role and functions of the government in Bangladesh has become all encompassing from the centre to the grassroots level. Its traditional functions also termed as regulatory functions (maintenance of law and order, collection of revenue and administration of justice) now constitute only a small segment, though their importance has not been reduced at all; rather increased manifold, of the voluminous functions of public administration. But by the nineties of the last century, some major and qualitative changes have taken place both in the internal and external environment of the country. The thrust for the reduced and limited role of the government is recognized nationally and internationally. In the economic sector, local private, and international and multinational initiatives are quite successful in various ventures while the government is found unsuccessful in managing and running public enterprises. On the other hand, a large number of Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), national and international, are shouldering some service and development responsibilities and also demonstrating better performance in their own spheres (CDRB and DPC, 1995). All these realities are now considered as the reflection of the freedom of individual belief and rights-two lofty ideals of modern day democracy. Thus there are both objective and subjective reasons to review the role and functions of the government. 2Public Policy Commitments Public policy commitments generally reflect the hopes and aspirations of the people and the demands of the time. These commitments are made in a democratic polity by the political parties both in power and aspiring to go to power. Public policy commitments are later translated into administrative actions. In Bangladesh, it has been observed that the public policy commitments made by the government are not pursued wholeheartedly. The institutional mechanisms, both internal and external, are also weak to monitor the translation of these into concrete administrative actions. Internal mechanisms include, administrative and political will of the government and effective administrative monitoring system. On the other hand, external mechanisms are specific parliamentary standing committees and effective role of the political parties in parliament and constructive role of the press and media. Moreover, public policy commitments lack consensus especially of the opposition political parties. As a result, public policy commitments made by one government are, in many cases, scraped or set aside by the next government that comes to power. 3Neutral Governance Currently neutral governance has become a common concern of politicians, administrators, academics and common people as every body are beneficiaries of it. Neutral governance is essential for the sustenance, growth and development of democratic polity. Modern day parliamentary democracies are based on multi party system. Under the system, a number of political parties with varying ideologies and agenda compete for assuming the state power or forming the government through the electoral process. Political parties stay in power so long as they enjoy the support and confidence of the people. The public administrative system that symbolizes permanency and continuity has to function under and at the direction of different political parties at different points of time. Under the above reality, the administration must ensure neutral governance. The concept of neutral governance with respect to a developing country like Bangladesh could be viewed from the perspective of Maintenance of Law and Order/Enforcement; Administration of and Access to Justice; and Planning and Execution of Development Programs. 3. 1Maintenance of Law and Order/Enforcement Maintenance of law and order is essential for ensuring neutral governance. Broadly speaking, maintenance of law and order has two aspects viz. maintenance of public peace, investigation and trial of criminal cases (GOP, 1960). The above involves both executive and judicial functions. Three elements are involved in it, the police, the magistracy and the judiciary (Ali, et. al. , 1983). The maintenance of public peace does not mean pre vention and control of any special type of crime. This deals with general law and order situations that may even be disturbed by non-criminal activities. Though crime may be committed, the real nature of the emergency here may be political or economic or communal. On the other hand, the investigation and trial of criminal cases may be described as prevention; investigation and detection; and prosecution of crime. It is believed that first of all crime should be prevented. If not prevented then the crime is committed. Once a crime is committed it must then be investigated and detected. The successful investigation leads to prosecution. Besides these, the police perform many other functions that have direct or indirect bearing on the maintenance of law and order/enforcement. Some of these are: execution of processes of criminal courts, regulation of crowds and traffic and other duties to meet emergency situations. To ensure neutral governance with respect to the maintenance of law and order/enforcement, the police administration should enjoy freedom from interference from any quarters. If interference are made Police administration can not function or discharge its duties and responsibilities without fear or favour. But in recent years, it has been alleged that the law enforcing agencies have been subjected to influences of various kinds to meet the political ends of the parties in power. Such practices seriously erode the confidence of the people and directly violate the principle of neutral governance, above all, they encourage the police particularly at the lower echelons, to take advantage of such biased position of the authorities to convert the opportunity for unrestrained personal gains. And this is what has happened in Bangladesh. 3. 2Administration of and Access to Justice-Rule of Law Administration and access to justice is a primary requirement for establishing the rule of law in the country. Again, the rule of law must be considered as an important dimension for sustainable democracy, accountable administration and equitable development. In the area of administration of justice in Bangladesh, the judicial system is subjected to some fundamental and procedural problems. Although there is constitutional provision for the separation of judiciary from the executive, concrete steps are yet be taken to separate the two especially at the lower level. It has been reported that now a bill proposing the separation of the judiciary and the executive is pending in the parliament for enactment. The combination of the executive/police and authority of criminal justice in the hands of the executive government was the innovation of the colonial power and it was specifically designed to meet the colonial purposes. However, non-action to separate the judiciary from administration helped accentuate bureaucratic authoritarianism and interference in the judicial process especially at the lower levels. Moreover, certain constitutional provisions require collaborative efforts of the Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs and the Supreme Court in the area of personnel management of the judges. Interference of the executive branch in the personnel management of the judiciary hampers judicial independence. In Bangladesh, successive governments meddled with the affairs of the judiciary to serve their narrow political ends. This state of affairs has seriously eroded the confidence of the people in the impartiality of the judicial process. Access to justice is another precondition for establishing rule of law in the country. Easy and timely access to judicial redress is essential for limiting or arresting the high handedness of the executive organ of the government. Repressive and sweeping laws also limit the private citizens’ access to the judiciary. Moreover, the structural and institutional inefficiency of the judicial system has created manifold problems which fails to check the excesses of the executive arm and the bureaucratic authority and to safeguard the civil rights of the people at large. 3. Planning and Execution of Development Program Another dimension of the concept of neutral governance is the neutral or impartial planning and execution of development programs. In developing countries like Bangladesh, initiatives for balanced development of the different parts of the country should come from the government. Moreover, for obvious reasons, the government has to shoulder the major responsibility with respect to economic and social sector development. But it has been observed that, in many cases, development programs are undertaken and executed to serve the narrow party interest of the political party in power at the expense of the national interest. The other phenomenon that is very much in existence in Bangladesh is that the people who are associated with the ruling party are awarded with various contracts relating to the execution of the development programs. Such practices breed corruption and the quality of the execution of the development programs also suffers. Sometimes, a nexus is developed between the political parties, government executing agencies and the implementers/contractors that results in waste and unnecessary cost escalation of development projects. But the concept of neutral governance with respect to planning and execution of the development programs suggests that national, not narrow party and or other interests, should come into prominence in the planning and execution of the development programs. The legitimate policy bias should not pervade the concept of neutral governance with respect to planning and execution of specific development plans and projects. It is natural that different political parties will have different policies and programs but this does not mean that their implementation should any way suffer from any partisan application. .4. Provider of Services Government’s role has changed with the passage of time. In the beginning, the basic purpose was to maintain the steady state. As such, the role was basically regulatory in nature. The concentration was on revenue collection, maintenance of law and order and administration of justice. The administrative system that Bangladesh inherited from the British in 1947 was developed for assuming the above stated roles. Then the government for the first time was called upon to shoulder new responsibilities in addition to its earlier role in traditional/regulatory administration. In the sphere of traditional administration, the emphasis was on maintaining steady state so that the nation can strive for better life both at the individual citizen’s level and also at the national level (Hussain, 1986). With the changed scenario, a new dimension was added to the role of the government, i. e. , development administration. The assumption of this new role was necessitated with the rising expectations of the people. Government at this stage, in the absence of any other alternative choice, had to intervene in different sectors (broadly, economic and service) of the national life to ensure all round national development. The situation in 1947 was such that there was virtually no private sector and entrepreneurial capacity of the private citizens was almost non-existent. Under compulsion, the government had to intervene in all sectors. This phenomenon continued through out the Pakistani period. Another point should be noted here that during this period whatever capacity developed in the private sector was confined mostly to the erstwhile West Pakistani (now Pakistani) nationals (Ahmed, 1980; Jahan, 1977) After the emergence of Bangladesh the situation was even worse. The institutional business enterprises and industries were mostly owned by the Pakistanis and these were left behind by them. The government had no choice but to nationalize those. On the other hand, government of the time also opted for a mixed economy. Consequently, the government’s roles and functions increased manifold. Besides, this period also witnessed the creation of a number of public enterprises especially in the economic sector (Sobhan and Ahmed (1980). In the service sector the government’s role and functions also increased considerably. The government ultimately became the main provider of services to the people. After the change of government in 1975, Government’s policies regarding its role underwent fundamental changes. Emphasis was put on the development of private initiatives in all sectors of national life. In the economic sector, thrust was given for the development of private entrepreneurial class (Ahmed, 1980). At the same time, the government went for the denationalization of different state owned enterprises. This period also saw the rise of a large number of Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs). These organizations started to take active part in development and service sectors especially at the grassroots level. In spite of all these developments, the government in Bangladesh still remains the primary providers of services in all sectors. The all encompassing role of the government resulted in mismanagement and overburdening of the administrative system. Now the time has come to redefine and delimit the role of the government as provider of services and also to look for alternative strategies for providing these to suit the demand of time. 5Civil Service An efficient and effective role of civil service in a developing democratic polity is of vital importance. The efficiency of public servants is a sine qua non for managing the affairs of the state. On the other hand, the involvement of the public servants must not transcend the boundary of the democratic framework. However, bureaucratic efficiency depends on conducive political and bureaucratic environment and culture suiting the needs of the hour; existence of the democratic values in the administrative system; and existence of mechanisms to have checks on bureaucratic excesses. 5. 1Bureaucratic Norms In multi-party democracy, public servants have to perform functions, such as, to inform the ministers and parliament with complete and accurate data presented objectively and in time; to advise ministers by analysis of data and appraisal of options in which they can have confidence; to implement ministerial decisions and to administer resultant decision; and to be responsible to minister and parliament for their actions (or inaction) with particular reference to the safeguarding of public funds and ensuring effective value for money (Stowes, 1992). With respect to the bureaucratic norms of the civil service in Bangladesh experience reveals that these are adhered to a very limited scale. A number of socio-economic and political factors, including historical peculiarities have impeded the growth of accountable structure of administration in Bangladesh. As a result, the ‘high office arrogance’, unethical behaviour, gross inefficiency, failure to respect legislative intent a nd failure to show initiatives have become apparent in the civil service of Bangladesh (Hussain and Sarker, 1995). 5. 2Decision Making Process Efficient decision making procedures are part of the professional and result-oriented administration. The organization and structure of the government and public service and administrative culture have bearing on the decision making system. In Bangladesh, the Rules of Business outline the basic provisions relating to the distribution of responsibilities among different units of government. Under the existing arrangement of the governmental administration, the ministry is responsible for formulating policies. The directorates/departments/statutory bodies and field offices implement policies. In fact, the existing arrangement implies a policy formulation-implementation dichotomy. Interestingly, such a dichotomy has a corresponding relationship to the structural arrangement of the system, resulting in the conflicting relationship between generalists and specialists. There is also confusion about the nature of decisions. It is difficult to draw a demarcation line between the policy decisions and the operational decisions. This confusion complicates the disposal of cases. This, along with centralized tendency in administration causes delay in decision making. Jurisdictional infringement, buck passing, distortion of priorities, employee disorientation and misallocation of resources are many of the factors responsible for such a state of affairs (Huda and Rahman, 1989). The other important aspect that may be noted here is that the discourse on decision making is confined only to the bureaucratic structure. For instance, there is no indication in the Rules of Business regarding the role of parliament members in decision making particularly at various administrative levels, without violating the separation of power policy. 5. 3Corruption Corruption has been and continues to be an unfortunate integral part of administrative culture in Bangladesh. But in recent times, it has taken an all pervasive form. A recent donor sponsored study reflecting on the harmful effect of bribery, corruption, kickbacks and under the table payments for various administrative decisions and actions noted that the per capita income in corruption free Bangladesh could have nearly doubled to US$ 700 (currently it is estimated to be US$350) (Transparency International, Bangladesh, 2000). Government officials especially, involved in development projects, service delivery, enforcement and regulatory agencies at all levels are reported to be colluding with private bidders and contractors and service seekers and consequently amassing vast illegal incomes in the bargain. The reasons for such corruption can be summed up: Firstly, because of institutional weaknesses, civil servants involved in corrupt practices, in most of the cases, are not taken to task and they indulge in corruption with impunity. Moreover, even if found guilty, they have never been adequately punished nor compelled to return to the state their ill-gotten wealth. Secondly, for quick service delivery, citizens in general, now do not mind to pay bribes and kickbacks. Thirdly, there is now social acceptance of corruption. Fourthly, barring occasional public procurements, the representatives of the people, i. e. politicians especially those who are in power, are not very enthusiastic to take effective measures to curb corrupt practices in public dealings. Rather in many cases, it is alleged that they have become party to various dubious deals. 6. Administrative Accountability Government policy decisions are implemented through bureaucratic mechanisms; as such, administrative accountability is essential for good government. In developing polity, there is a tendency on the part of the public bureaucracy to exercise power in an authoritarian manner. Bangladesh bureaucracy is also no exception to that. Authoritarian organization culture still persists. Democratic values are still lacking in the bureaucracy. This is due to the colonial legacy that the administration inherited and lack of experience of the bureaucratic system to function under broader democratic political environment. There is a marked lack of clarity and in deed there is an imbalance between the role of bureaucracy and the role of public representatives and political leaders in the policy making and overall governance system. No systematic measures have been taken so far to streamline the institutional integration of popular interests and technical expertise at all levels of government. As a result, efficiency and accountability suffer under democratic political leadership. The arrogance of high office, unethical behaviour, failure to respect legislative intent and apathy towards work have been rampant (UNDP, 1993). However, elaborate measures should be undertaken to curtail bureaucratic excess. Its role should not go beyond the limits that may thwart democratic ideals and practices. Some of the measures could be through the effective roles of the parliament, media and the civil society. . 1Role of Parliament Bangladesh has again gone back to the parliamentary form of government after amending the constitution (GOB, 1998). Under the present system, the executive branch is responsible to the parliament and that the peoples’ representatives must have sufficient voice in the design and formulation of public policy. In Bangladesh, the parliament is primarily concerned with enacting legislation and ratifying decisions that the executive has already taken. Thus, it is clearly observed that peoples’ representatives have no substantive role in policy formulation. The role of parliamentary committees is very significant in this regard. These statutory committees are expected to scrutinize various aspects of government actions. Moreover, they should function in such a manner so as to ensure transparency of vital government businesses. However, in Bangladesh, the parliamentary committees so far have failed to play the vital role in making the administration accountable. Some important committees such as, Public Accounts Committee, Committee on Estimates, Committee on Public Undertaking and other standing committees on various ministries are not performing well enough to ensure accountability of executive government. Committee meetings are not held regularly and ministers in many cases do not attend the meetings. More importantly, the decisions of the committees are not followed by actions. The other feature of Bangladesh politics is the excessive reliance on exercising executive authority by keeping the parliament in the dark. In most cases, policy issues are not discussed in the parliament. This weakens parliament’s authority to hold the executive accountable to it. Another interesting feature of Bangladesh politics is that the opposition political parties oppose the ruling party for the sake of opposition only. Moreover, boycotting/non-participation in the sessions of the parliament has also become a regular practice of the opposition political parties. But to have healthy political environment and to hold the party in power responsible for the actions/inaction, opposition political parties should play a positive role both within and outside the parliament. 6. 2Role of Media Role of media is very important in ensuring administrative accountability. Information about government actions are largely reported through the media both electronic and print. By ensuring free flow of information, the media also ensures transparency of administrative actions. Currently, the print media is enjoying considerable freedom in Bangladesh. They bring lapses and excesses of the executive to the notice of the public and thereby making them accountable. But exclusive government control over state run mass media like radio and television run contrary to the concept of free flow of information and transparency. Such exclusive control has negative bearing on ensuring administrative accountability. In Bangladesh, both radio and television are solely owned and controlled by the government. As a result, these two media are acting as the spokesmen of the government or rather the party in power. Impartial information and views, in most of the cases, are not usually broadcast. Moreover, views of the opposition political parties and groups do not receive proper and adequate attention of the state run radio and television. As we know, the role of media by facilitating the free flow of information of all government actions is very essential for ensuring executive and administrative accountability. The reforms which, according to the press reports, are on the anvil appear to fall short of expectations of the nation in as much as the government control on the state run electronic media remains virtually overlooked. 6. 3Role of Civil Society From a functional perspective, there is a general tendency to treat civil society as one of the three sections that constitute a nation – the other two being the public sector or the government and the private sector or the profit-seeking enterprises. Very broadly, civil society can be defined as those organizations that exist between the level of the family and the state and enjoy a degree of autonomy from the state and the market, and provide a counter-balance to the power of the state and the market. Civil society may also be viewed as organized activities by groups or individuals either performing certain services or trying to influence and improve the society as a whole, but are not part of government or business (Jorgensen, 1996). In Bangladesh, civil society includes indigenous community groups, mass organizations, cooperatives, religious societies, trade unions, and professional bodies. Given the dynamics of the political process, it is indeed difficult to set a prescribed role for the civil society in Bangladesh. The role of civil society, in fact, depends on the nature of the demand and prevailing conditions of a polity. However, areas of involvement of the civil society in the context of Bangladesh are policy advocacy, mobilization of public opinion, demand creation, active participation in policy formulation process, bridging the gap between citizens and government, pressurizing the government with the help of the media, supporting the popular movement in favour of a given policy issue, lobbying with the donor groups/development partners, playing the role of mediator/ arbitrator between citizens and government, and policy analysis, etc. Civil society, by its actions, performs as pressure group in the polity in attaining administrative accountability. In the true sense of the term, the civil society is only emerging in Bangladesh. In recent years, the civil society has made some limited but positive contributions towards ensuring executive and administrative accountability. But it has been observed that some groups of the civil society movement are politicized and divided on political lines. Though there has been a steady and random growth of the civil society organizations, there is virtually no active network of them to look after collective interests of the people. More concerted efforts are needed to organize and further develop the civil society institutions so that they can play an appropriate role in making the executive and the administration accountable to people. MAJOR ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS The major administrative reforms and their fate are discussed elaborately in the following List of Major Committees and Commission for Administrative Reform |S. n. |Name of the Committee/Commission |Focus Areas |Major Recommendations |Observation | |1 |Civil Administration Restoration |Organizational set up for the |Establishment of 20 Ministries, 3 other secretariat organizations and|Secretariat administration was reorganized with 20 ministries. | |Committee, 1971 |Government after the emergence of |7 constitutional bodies |Constitutional bodies like Supreme Court, the High Court, the Public | | | |Bangladesh |Detailed specification of functions of civil servants at the |Service Commission, the Election Commission and the Office of the | | | | |Div ision, District, Sub-division levels |Comptroller and Auditor General were established | | | | |Providing appropriate status and respect to the officers and staff of| | | | | |civil administration as lawful organs of the Government | | |2 |Administrative and Services Structure |Civil Service Structure |Unified civil service structure with a continuous grading system |The report of the Committee was not published | | |Reorganization Committee, 1972 | |from top to the bottom. Division of all posts into two broad | | | | | |categories: Functional and Area Group Posts. Top 3 grades, i,e. I, | | | | | |II and III to be designated as Senior Policy and Management Posts | | |3 |National Pay Commission, 1972 |Pay Issues |10 scales of pay in line with the recommendation of the ASRC |New national pay scale with 10 grades was introduced | |4 |Pay and Services Commission, 1977 |Civil Service Structure and Pay Issues |52 scales of pay and equal initial scales of pay and equitable |The New Na tional Grades and Scales of Pay was introduces with 21 | | | | |opportunities for advancement to the top for all |scales of pay | | | | |Introduction of Superior Policy Pool at the top of the civil service |28 services under 14 main cadres were created within the civil service| | | | |Establishment of Civil Service Ministry by abolishing Establishment |A Senior Services Pool was constituted | | | | |Ministry | | |5 |Martial Law Committee for Examining |Reorganization and Rationalization of |Reduction in the number of ministries/divisions/directorates and |Number of ministries were reduced from 36 to 19 | | |Organizational Set up of |Manpower in Public Sector Organizations|sun-ordinate offices |Number of other offices were reduced from 243 to 181 | | |Ministries/Divisions/Directorates and | | |Number of constitutional bodies were reduced from 12 to 9. Number of | | |other organizations, 1982 | |Reduction of layers for decision making |officials and employees mostly working at the lower levels was reduced| | | | | |from 9,440 to 3,222 | | | | |Delegation of administrative and financial powers down the hierarchy | | |6 |Committee for Administrative Reform and |Reorganization of Field Level |Up gradation of Thanas with Thana Parishads as the focal point of |The new system of administration and local government was introduced | | |Reorganization, 1982 |Administration |local administration |in 460 Thana’s (Thanas were later renamed as Upazilas) | |7 |National Pay Commission, 1984 |Pay Issues |New National Pay Scale with 20 grades |The New National Scales of Pay was introduces with 20 scales of pay | | |Secretaries Committee on Administrative |Promotion Aspects |Maintenance of status quo for 10 cadre services as promotion prospect| | | |Development, 1985 | |had been satisfactory | | |8 |Special Committee to Review the Structu re |Structure of Senior Services Pool (SSP)|Continuation of SSP as a cadre |Recommendations were referred to the Cabinet Sub-committee for | | |of Senior Services Pool, 1985 | |Entry into the SSP only through examination to be conducted by the |examination | | | | Public Service Commission | | | | | |Tenure of Secretaries be limited to 8 years | | |9 |Cabinet Sub-committee, 1987 |Review of SSP and Promotion Aspects |Creation of 50% of posts of Deputy Secretaries within the pay scales |Recommendations were referred to the Council Committee for | | | |Rules of Business |of Taka 4200-5200 for making SSP more attractive |examination. The recommendations of the Council Committee were not | | | | |Tenure of Secretaries should not be limited |approved by the President | |10 | 1996Committee to Re-examine the necessity|Necessity or otherwise of keeping | | | | |of keeping certain Government Offices in |certain Government Offices | | | | |the light of changed circumstances, 1989 | | | | |11 |National Pay Commission,1989 |Pay Issues |Revised National Scales of Pay |20 revised Nation Scales of Pay was introduced | |12 |Administrative Reorganization Committee, |Administrative structure and staffing |Reduction of the number of ministries from 35 to 22 and the number of|The report of the Committee was not made public | | |1993 |patterns |administrative organization from 257 to 224 | | | | | |Provisional structure for the Office of Ombudsman | | | | |Creation of a Secretariat for the Supreme Court | | |12 |National Pay Commission, |Pay Issues |Revised National Scales of Pay |20 revised Nation Scales of Pay was introduce d | | | |Structure and reorganization of | | | | | |manpower across | | | | | |Ministries/Departments/Directorates, | | | | | |etc. | | |13 |Administrative Reorganization Committee, |Administrative structure for improving | | | | |1996 |the quality and standard of service, | | | | | |achieve transparency and efficiency | | | |14 |Public Administration Reform Commission, | |Determination of Missions and functions of the public offices |Some of the interim recommendations have been implemented | | |1997 | |Formation of a professional policy making group â€Å"Senior Management |The recommendations of the Commission have been accepted by the | | | | |Pool† Lateral entry into the civil service |government in a recently held cabinet meeting | | | | |Reduction of the number of ministries from 36 to 25 and the abolition| | | | | |of 6 organizations. Establishment of the Supreme Court Secretarial. | | | | |Establishment of the Office of the Ombudsman | | | | | |The local co uncils/Parishads at the district, Upazila and Union | | | | | |should have overall authority of coordination of development | | | | | |activities . Establishment of an Independent Commission Against | | | | | |Corruption, Establishment of a Criminal Justice Commission | | | | | |Magnetization of public service benefits; Establishment of a Public | | | | | |Administration Reform monitoring Commission | | DISCUSSION ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS ELABORATELY IN THE FOLLOWING†¦. Administrative and service structure reorganization committee(ASRC): On 15 March 1972 a four members administrative and service reorganization committee (ASRC) was appointed and submitted its report in two phases in April 1973 and in May 1974. Mission of ASRC: The ASRC was asked – To consider the present structure of various service†¦.. And determine the future structure keeping in the view fundamental needs. To consider the amalgamation of all civil services †¦.. Into one unified service. To determine the principle of integration of the personnel of various service in the new structure and to determine inter seniority of personnel in different service. To determine the future recruitment policy in the government service and various levels. To prepare and recommend a comprehensive scheme for administrative reorganization. Significant recommendation: The ASRC have done some important recommendations. As like- The committee felt that division between former all Pakistan and other central superior services and the former provincial service as well division between higher and lower classes be abolished and a continuous grading system from top to bottom should be substituted in each occupational group. The committee suggested that reservation of posts for various groups within the public service should be discontinued. All public servants, the ASRC recommended, should be organized in a single classes unified grading structure (UGS) covering the whole public service. To inculcate professionalism in the public service, the committee suggested, division of all posts within it into two broad categories to be designated as functional posts and area group posts. The ASRC called for designating posts in top three grades, i. e. I. II and III as senior policy and management posts and tightening selection procedure for entrance into senior management positions. The committee also suggested a detail plan as to how its proposal for UGS be implemented throughout the public service. The ASRC felt that individuals should be recruited to various grads as in the public service on the basis of merit as tested by their performance in competitive public examination. The ASRC also made a number of specific recommendations to democratize the governance and reduce the powers. As like- Increasing devolution of power and authority to elected local governments at different levels district, Thana, and union was forcefully argued to enable locally elected officials to provide leadership in developmental activities without interference from central government officials placed in the field. Different local levels field tiers had to be rationalized with upgrading of subdivisions into districts and abolition of division. Separation of the judiciary from the executive had to be ensured for successful functioning of a democratic policy. At the central levels the role o the secretariat needed to be restricted to policy formulation, planning and evaluation of the executed plans and programs. Fate of ASRC The ASRC submitted its recommendations to the government in two phases. But there was no official response to the committee’s work till the end of the Mujib government. It is difficult to understand why far- reaching recommendations of ASRC was shelved in spite of the fact that accepting the members. All members including the chairman were close to Mujib both politically and personally. It is on record that Mujib was unhappy with the poor performance on lack of commitment of many senior civil servants. He knew the problems but did not want to go all the way to solve the malices. That created the paradox and consequently Mujib’s lack of action. National pay commission(NPC): A nation pay commission (NPC-1) was appointed on 21July 1972 under the chairmanship of a retired secretary to the government. Besides the chairman, there were nine members. The membership of the commission included full –time and five part-time members. Mission: The national pay commission (NPC-1) was assigned with a number of tasks. These included: Reviewing the pay structure of all employees in the public sector keeping in view the government’s policy of socialism. Recommending rationalization and standardization of pay scales of those who served under erstwhile central and provincial governments. Significant recommendations: The guiding principles followed by NPC-1 in recommending a rational pay structure were a livable wage, social acceptability, functionally distinguishable levels of responsibility matched with standardized pay levels and motivation based on patriotic grounds. The NPC-1 felt that a nine tiers administrative structure with corresponding pay scales could meet the requirements of a rational structure in Bangladesh during next five years 1973-1978 of the nine scales for would be normal direct entry tiers, three promotion tiers and two conversion ties but the commission’s plan had to be modified to bring it in line with ASRC recommendation. Fate of NPC Some of the recommendations f the commission were partially implemented however, majority of the recommendations of the NPC-1 were not implemented. Reasons can be offered as to why the commission’s recommendations suffered such a fact: Compression of 2200 scales into 10 scales was very difficult task and it proved to be at the implementation stage. No major segment within the civil service supported the recommendations. Rather almost everybody who mattered opposed it. Pay and service commission(P&SC): The pay and service commission (P&SC) was appointed on 20 February 1976 consisted of thirteen member including the chairman, headed by retired secretary who was changed in mid-way and replaced by another senior civil servant. Mission: The P&SC was asked to examine the existing pay and service structure of public sector except defense service and university’s teaching posts, recommend suitable service structure and pay structure including fringe benefits for civil service. In marking its recommendation, the commission had to consider some factors such as: Functional needs and requirements of the government, job requirement or various service and posts, cost of living, resources of the government and public sector enterprises, reduction of disparity between the highest and the lowest salary levels, demand and supply of various profession and occupation. It had another main business to examine both service and pay matters of all employees in the traditional public sector and this had to be accomplished within a given set of constraints. Fate of P&SC: The government slowly and implemented some of the recommendations in modified form and it took two years. Creation of twenty eight services under fourteen main cadres within the civil service. The government in 1977 provided for twenty –one scales of pay through the introduction of new national grades and scales of pay (NNGSP). In the process the government drastically scales down the number, that is fifty scales of pay which P&SC recommended but the NNGSP satisfied very few people. Constitution of senior service pool (SSP) by the government. The (SSP) was modeled in light of the P&SC call for creation of a superior policy pool (SSP), but the SSP order was formulated and implemented in such a manner that the objective behind SSP was willfully ignored. Martial Law Committee -1(MLC-1): A five – member martial law committee for examining organization set up of ministries /divisions , departments , directorates and other organization under them (MLC) was appointed on April 18,1982 under the chairmanship of a Brigadier . The other members of the committee were two lieutenant colonels, one major and one mid ranking civil servant. The latter was made secretary to the committee. Mission of MLC-1: The committee’s responsibility included: To review and recommend charter of duties of various sectors, branches, wings, divisions and departments. To scrutinize existing and